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LIBRARY     OF 


1885- 1056 


Entomology  fok  Beginners 


FOR  THE  USE  OF 


YOUNG  FOLKS,  FRUIT-GROWERS,  FARMERS, 
AND   GARDENERS 


BY 

A.  S.  PACKARD,  M.D.,  Ph.D., 

Author  of  '''Zoology  for  High  Schools  and  Colleges,"  ''First  Lessons  in 
Zoology"  "Guide  to  the  Study  of  Insects,"  etc. 


FLOREAT    ENTOMOLOGIA! 

—Darwin,  Life  and  Letters,  i.  497 


TRIED  EDITION,  REVISED 


NEW  YORK 

HENRY   HOLT    AND    COMPANY 

1899 


Copyright,  1888, 

BY 

Henry  Holt  &  Co. 


TO  THE 
OP 

JOHN  L.   LE    CONTE,   M.D., 

The  Leading  Entomologist  of  America, 

THIS  LITTLE  BOOK   IS   GRATEFULLY  DEDICATED   IN   RECOGNITION  OF 

HIS    ADMIRABLE    QUALITIES    AS   A    MAN    AND    NATURALIST, 

OP     THE    IMPULSE    HE     GAVE     TO     THE     STUDY     OP 

ENTOMOLOGY    IN    THE    NEW    WORLD,    AND 

OF    THE    AID     HE     RENDERED    TO 

BEGINNERS    IN    THAT 

SCIENCE. 


PREFACE. 


Ix  preparing  this  little  book  the  aim  has  been  to  make  it 
generally  useful  to  different  classes  of  readers.  Beginners 
in  the  study  will  find  in  it  copious  directions  for  collecting 
and  preserving  insects,  how  to  form  cabinets,  how  to  mount 
insects  for  the  microscope,  and  how  to  prepare  them  for 
study,  as  well  as  guides  to  the  literature  containing  the  de- 
scription of  species.  While  amateurs  and  dilettanti  ento- 
mologists may  find  useful  hints,  the  needs  of  those  who 
wish  to  make  a  serious  study  of  these  animals  have  not  been 
overlooked,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  book  will  be  of  some 
service  in  leading  such  students  to  pay  more  attention  to 
the  modes  of  life,  transformations,  and  structure  of  insects 
than  has  yet  been  done  in  this  country. 

The  book  is  also  designed  as  a  hand-book  for  the  farmer, 
the  fruit-grower,  and  the  gardener.  Besides  treating  of  the 
vlements  of  the  science  and  the  means  of  ascertaining  to 
what  order  and  family  their  insect  pests  belong,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  descriptive  works  and  reports  for  fuller  informa- 
tion, while  Chapter  V.  gives  the  fundamental  principles  of 
Economic  Entomology,  with  brief  accounts  of  the  more  in- 
jurious insects  and  the  natural  and  artificial  means  of  check- 
ing their  attacks.  On  account  of  the  prominence  given  to 
this  topic  it  is  hoped  that  the  book  will,  with  its  copious 
glossary,  be  serviceable  to  agricultural  editors  and  useful  as 
a  text-book  in  agricultural  schools  and  colleges. 

As  a  first  book  in  entomology  it  is  also  designed  to  be  an 
introduction  to  the  author's  "Guide  to  the  Study  of  In- 
sects/' 


Vi  PREFACE. 

The  classification  presented  is  in  accordance  with  recent 
studies  and  the  conviction  that  certain  of  the  lower  so-called 
"orders"  of  insects,  such  as  the  " Orthoptera/'  "  Pseudo- 
neuroptera,"  are  heterogeneous,  unnatural  groups,  which 
for  the  sake  of  clearness  and  truth  to  nature  should  be 
broken  up  into  distinct  orders.  The  class  of  insects,  there- 
fore, is  divided  into  sixteen  orders  instead  of  eight,  as  may 
be  seen  in  tabular  form  on  p.  56,  and  the  usual  succession 
of  orders  has  been  reversed,  the  book  beginning  with  the 
lowest,  the  wingless  insects,  and  ending  with  the  highest, 
the  Hymenoptera.  This  order  agrees  with  the  probable 
mode  of  evolution  of  the  class,  and  with  the  geological  suc- 
cession of  insects,  so  far  as  we  know  it;  insects  like  cock- 
roaches, grasshoppers,  etc.,  being  the  first  to  appear,  those 
with  a  metamorphosis,  as  neuroptera,  beetles,  flies,  moths, 
ants,  and  bees,  succeeding  them. 

In  1863  the  author  proposed  a  new  classification  of  insects, 
placing  the  Hymenoptera  at  the  head  of  the  insect-series, 
the  Coleoptera  having,  because,  perhaps,  from  being  the 
favorites  of  collectors,  been  assigned  this  position.  Since 
that  time  it  has  been  gratifying  to  see  that,  at  the  present 
time,  not  only  in  the  United  States,  but  in  England  and  on 
the  Continent,  the  Hymenoptera  by  general  consent  crown 
the  summit  of  the  tree  of  insect  life. 

The  present  scheme  of  classification  was  in  part  worked 
out  by  the  author  (contrary  to  his  early  convictions  or  preju- 
dices) and  published  in  1883,  when  ten  orders  instead  of 
eight  were  adopted;  while  it  was  remarked  that  the  three 
groups  (i.e.,  white  ants,  etc.,  the  may-flies,  and  the  dragon - 
flies)  composing  the  "  Pseudoneuroptera"  might  hereafter 
be  regarded  as  entitled  to  the  rank  of  orders.  It  should 
also  be  borne  in  mind  that  some  of  the  leading  entomologists, 
as  Westwood  and  others,  had  for  many  years  regarded  the 
ear-wigs,  the  caddis-flies,  the  Thripidge,  and  the  fleas  as 
representing  distinct  orders.  While  we  were  considering  it 
a  debatable  question  whether  these  important  types  had  not 
been  unwarrantably    'Mumped"  with  the  older  Linnjean 


PREFACE.  Vli 

orders,  Kraepeliu's  careful  analysis  of  the  affinities  of  the 
fleas  appeared  in  1884,  and  the  year  after  Dr.  F.  Braner's 
''Systematisch-Zoologische  Studien,"  in  which  he  carefully 
and  yet  boldly  discusses  the  classification  of  insects,  and 
takes  more  analytical  views  than  any  of  his  predecessors. 
Referring  the  Thysanura  to  a  separate  sub-class,  Brauer 
then,  as  we  had  previously  done,  divides  the  winged  insects 
into  a  number  of  super-orders,  whose  limits,  however,  diflier 
much  from  those  assigned  to  the  super-orders  proposed  by 
us;  yet  we  both  agree  as  to  the  necessity  of  such  groups. 

Brauer  then  proceeds  to  divide  the  winged  insects  into 
sixteen  orders,  beginning,  as  we  had  done,  with  the  ear- 
wigs, Dermaptera,  and  ending  with  the  Hymenoptera.  He 
regards  the  may-flies,  the  dragon-flies,  the  stone-flies  (Per- 
lidae),  the  white  ants  and  their  allies,  the  Thripidae,  the 
forceps-tails,  the  caddis-flies,  and  the  fleas  as  types  of  dis- 
tinct orders.  AVlien  so  able  and  sound  a  systematist  arrives 
at  such  conclusions,  we  feel  emboldened  to  adopt  them, 
particularly  as  they  coincide  with  our  own  maturer  views. 

We  have  ventured  to  give  the  ordinal  name  Plectoptera 
to  the  may-flies,  and  Mecoptera  to  the  Panorpat^e  of  Brauer, 
but  the  credit  of  referring  these  types  to  distinct  orders 
belongs  mainly  to  that  eminent  systematist. 

Although  these  changes  in  classification  are  based  on  our 
increased  knowledge  of  insects,  it  is  also  very  convenient  to 
adopt  a  larger  number  of  orders.  There  are  probably  about 
a  million  species  of  Insects  now  existing,  and  it  is  unnatural 
to  crowd  them  into  the  old  Linnaean  orders.  While  the 
Mollusks  (about  40,000  living  species)  are  divided  into  twelve 
orders,  and  the  5000  species  of  Crustacea  into  six;  and  while 
the  10,000  species  of  living  fishes  are  variously  divided  into 
from  six  to  fourteen  orders,  the  class  of  reptiles  into  eleven 
orders,  the  7000  to  8000  species  of  existing  birds  into  from 
seven  to  eighteen  orders,  and  the  3500  described  living 
species  of  mammals  into  fourteen  orders,  it  seems  not  un- 
reasonable to  suppose  that  the  number  of  insect  orders  is  at 
least  proportionately  as  great. 


viii  PREFACE. 

So  progressive  a  science  as  Zoology,  and  especially  its  sub- 
division entomology,  is  in  a  transitory  state,  especially  sys- 
tematic entomology.  We  cannot,  like  the  Chinese,  actually 
Avorship  Linnaeus,  our  zoological  Confucius;  we  cannot  pay 
too  great  deference  to  any  system.  Our  ideas  of  classifica- 
tion must  change  with  our  increasing  knowledge.  With  the 
evolution  theory  as  a  useful  instrument  of  research,  our 
systems  of  classification  representing  what  we  suppose  to  be 
the  phylogeny  of  the  class,  we  have  a  philosophical  basis, 
a  working  theory,  which  Avill  throw  light  on  dark  places, 
and  solve  many  a  knotty  point.  It  is  for  this  reason  that 
we  need  to  study  the  embryology  and  life-history  of  insects, 
supplementing  these  with  anatomical  investigations,  besides 
carrying  on  the  work  of  collecting,  describing,  and  thus  en- 
larging our  knowledge  of  the  distribution  of  insects  in  space 
and  time. 

The  author  gratefully  acknowledges  kind  aid  received 
from  several  eminent  naturalists  in  revising  the  portions 
dealing  with  subjects  of  which  they  have  a  special  knowl- 
edge. Dr.  P.  E.  Uhler  has  read  the  original  MS.  and  proof 
of  the  pages  treating  of  the  Hemiptera;  Mr.  Samuel  Hen- 
shaw  the  same  of  the  Coleoptera;  and  Dr.  S.  W.  AVilliston 
the  pages  devoted  to  the  Diptera;  while  Professor  Farlow 
of  Harvard  University  has  kindly  read  the  proof  of  the 
section  on  Diseases  of  Insects  due  to  Animal  and  Vegetable 
Germs;  Mr.  N.  N.  Mason  of  Providence,  E.  I.,  has  also 
read  the  proof  of  Chapter  VIIL,  and  made  some  valuable 
suggestions. 

Besides  a  number  of  cuts  purchased  of  Prof.  C.  V.  Eiley, 
which  are  acknowledged  in  the  text.  Figs.  87,  88,  and  89 
are  taken  from  Darwin's  Descent  of  Man  (D.  Appleton  & 
Co.,  New  York);  for  electrotypes  of  several  figures,  from  his 
work  on  butterflies,  I  am  indebted  to  S.  H.  Scudder,  Esq. ; 
Fig.  238  was  loaned  by  Prof.  J.  A.  Lintner;  Fig.  18G  by 
the  U.  S.  Agricultural  Department;  and  of  Fig.  83  the 
author  was  allowed  the  use  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution.     A  number  of  electrotypes  from  Judeich 


PREFACE.  ix 

and  Nitsche's  work  on  forest  insects  was  also  purchased 
of  the  Vienna  publisher. 

The  figures  are,  unless  stated  to  be  of  natural  size,  en- 
larged; in  some  of  them  a  line  by  the  side  indicates  the 
length  of  the  specimen  from  which  the  figure  was  drawn. 

Providence,  R.  I.,  June  25,  1888. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 


PAGE 

THE  STRUCTURE   OF  INSECTS.  1_31 

External  anatomy, 3 

Abdomen, 3 

Thorax, 4 

Head, 6 

Internal  anatomy, 7 

(Esophagus, , 7 

Crop, 9 

Proveutricuhis, 9 

Stomach  and  gastric  coeca, 9 

Urinary  tubes, 11 

Intestine, 11 

Digestion, 11 

Nervous  system, 13 

How  insects  walk  and  fly, 17 

How  insects  trreaihe, 19 

The  senses  of  insects, 31 

The  eyes  and  sense  of  sight, 33 

The  olfactory  organs  and  sense  of  smell, 86 

The  gustatory  organs  and  sense  of  taste, 37 

The  ears  and  sense  of  hearing 38 

Sounds  produced  by  insects, 30 

Tactile  organs, 31 


CHAPTER  II. 

GROWTH  AND   METAMORPHOSIS   OF  INSECTS.  33-53 

Egg -producing  organs, 32 

The  ovaries, 34 

The  ovipositor, 34 


xu  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PAOE 

The  testes, 34 

The  egg 34 

Growth  of  the  insect  within  the  egg, 35 

The  egg-cutter, 38 

Metanuyrphosis  of  insects — th^  larva, 38 

Number  of  larval  moults, ,     ...  39 

The  ptipa, 40 

The  imago, 41 

Parthenogenesis, 41 

Broods  or  generations  of  insects, 42 

Contagious  diseases  of  insects  due  to  animal  and  vegetable  germ^,      .  43 

The  destruction  of  insect  pests  by  means  of  insect  fungi,      ....  45 

Unusual  increase  in  the  nximber  of  insects, 48 

Influence  of  changes  of  temperature  on  insect-life, 49 

Periodicity  in  insect-life, 52 

Number  of  species  of  insects, 52 


CHAPTER  III. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  INSECTS.  54-177 

Synopsis  of  the  orders  of  insects, 54 

Tabular  view  of  the  orders  of  insects, 56 

Order         I.   Thysanura, 56 

Order       II.  Dermaptera, 58 

Order     III.   Orthoptera, 59 

Order     IV.  Platyptera, 63 

Order       V.   Odonata, 68 

Order      VI.  Plectoptera, 71 

Order    VII.   Thysanoptera, 73 

Order  VIII.  Hemiptera, 74 

Order     IX.  Neuroptera, 84 

Order       X.  Mecnptera, 88 

Order      XI.   Trichoptera,       90 

Order    XII.   Coleoptera, 91 

Order  XIII.  Siphonaptera, 115 

Order  XIV.  Diptera 117 

Order    XV.  Lepidoptera 137 

Order  XVI.  Hymenoptera, 161 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.  xiii 

CHAPTER  IV. 

INSECT-ARCHITECTURE.  178-188 

Leaf-rollers, 179 

Gall-makers, 181 

Leaf-miners 182 

Case-worms, 183 

Nests  of  ants, 183 

Nests  of  wasps, 184 

Nests  of  bees, 186 

CHAPTER  V. 

INSECTS  INJURIOUS  AND  BENEFICIAL  TO  AGRICULTURE.    189-323 

Ecoiwmie  Entomology, 189 

Insects  injurwus  to  field  and  garden  crops, 191 

Injuring  wheat, 191 

Injuring  corn, 198 

Injuring  the  cotton  plant, 200 

Injuring  the  potato, 202 

Injuring  the  cabbage,  radish,  etc., 205 

Injuring  the  hop-vine 208 

Injuring  the  grapevine, 209 

Injuring  fruit-trees, 211 

Insects  beneficial  to  agriculture, =     .     .  217 

Insectivorous  insects, 220 

Preventive  and  direct  remedies  against  tJie  attacks  of  insects,  .     .     .  221 

Insecticides, 222 

Miscellaneous  remedies, 223 

CHAPTER  VI. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  COLLECTING,  PRESERVING,  AND  BEARING 

INSECTS.  224^288 

Where  to  look  for  insects, 224 

Collecting  apparatus 226 

Killing  insects  for  the  cabinet, 228 

Pinning  insects, 230 

Preservative  fluids, 231 

Preparing  insects  for  the  cabinet, 234 

Insect  cabinet, 238 

Transportation  of  insects, 240 


xiv  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Preservation  of  larvm, 240 

Bearing  aquatic  larvm, 243 

Rearing  insects  in  general, 243 

Sugaring  for  motlis, 246 

Traps  for  moths 246 

Rearing  caterpillars, 247 

Hibernatiny  larvce, 253 

Management  ofpupm, 253 

Pairing  or  mating  Lepidoptera  in  captivity, 253 

Treatment  of  the  eggs, 254 

Collecting  and  rearing  Micro-lepidoptera, 254 

Preserving  micro-larwe  in  alcohol, 266 

Preserving  larvm  dry, 267 

Bleaching  the  wings  for  the  study  of  th^e  venation, 268 

Mounting  the  wings  of  Micro-lepidoptera, 369 

Mounting  the  icings  of  Macro-lepidoptera, 269 

To  remove  grease, 270 

Collecting  and  Preserving  Coleoptera, 371 

Rearing  tiger-  and  ground-beetles, 376 

Rearing  of  burying -beetles, 378 

Rearing  wood-boring  larvm,  Longicorns,  etc., 378 

Rearing  of  bark-  and  bast-boring  beetles, 379 

Rearing  larvm  of  dung-beetles, 379 

Cleansing  greasy  beetles, 880 

To  wash  old,  soiled  specimens, 380 

Collecting  and  Preserving  Hemiptera, 380 

Examining  live  Aphides 381 

Preservation  of  Orthoptera, 383 

Preservation  op  Dragon-flies,  May-flies,  Caddis-flies, 

ETC., 283 

Collecting  and  Rearing  Diptera, 384 

Collection  and  Preservation  of  Hymenoptera,    ....  387 


CHAPTER  VII. 

MODE  OF  DISSECTING  INSECTS.  289-393 

The  external  anatomy, 889 

The  internal  anatomy, 889 

Dissection  of  Aphides, 393 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.  XV 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

PAQE 

CUTTING   AND   MOUNTING   MICROSCOPIC  SECTIONS  OF 

INSECTS  AND  MOUNTING   THEM  WHOLE,  ETC.       294-325 

Fixation  of  the  histological  elements, 295 

Dehydration 295 

Embedding,  staining,  and  cutting, 296 

Mounting  sections 300 

To  render  small  insects  or  larvcB  transparent, 301 

Mounting  transparent  aquatic  insects, 301 

Transmission,  preservation,  and  mounting  Aphides  and  similair 

insects 303 

Thomas  W.  Starr's  method  of  preparing  and  mounting  with  pressure 

insects  entire  as  transparent  objects, 305 

Method  of  preparing  minute  entomosiraca,  mites,  spiders,  and  insects,  307 

Carbolic  acid  in  balsam  mounting, 307 

Killing  and  preserving  insects 307 

Bleaching  fluid  for  insects, 308 

To  clear  objects  foi'  balsam  mounting, 308 

Mounting  insects  in  balsam  without  pressure, 308 

Pi'eparing  and  mounting  dissections  of  th^  appendages,  etc.,  .     .     .  309 

Mounting  minute  insects  and  acari  in  balsam, 309 

Sections  of  the  brain, 310 

Preparing  the  sympathetic  nervous  system  of  the  cockroach,  .  .  .  311 
Making  sectio?is  tJirough  and  bleaching  the  eyes  of  insects,  ....  311 
Expanding  arid  mounting  the  tongue  of  the  louse  and  blow-fly,  .  .  314 
Microscopic  sections  of  the  proboscis  of  flies,  bugs,  and  bees,      .     .     .315 

Sections  of  the  ovipositoi'  w  sting,       315 

Mounting  th£  gizzards  of  insects 316 

Preparation  of  ths  intestine  of  insects, 316 

Preparation  of  insect  spiracles, 317 

Mounting  of  trachece, 317 

Mounting  legs,  etc. ,  of  insects, 318 

Mounting  the  skin  of  caterpillars 318 

Dissection  and  preparation  of  th£  spermatic  filaments, 318 

Making  sections  of  eggs, 319 

Preparing  embryos  of  insects, 321 

Surface  study  of  eggs,  and  hardening  for  cutting,  etc., 323 

Mounting  dry  the  eggs  of  insects, 323 

Preparing  fire- flies,  etc., 323 

Mounting  dry  the  appendages  of  insects  for  pinning  in  the  cabinet,  .  323 
Moutiting  the  "  sate  "  of  the  Tenthredinidie 324 


xvi  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PAOE 

THE  ENTOMOLOGIST'S  LIBRARY.  336-335 

Bibliographical  works  on  Entomology, 326 

Entomological  Periodicals, 337 

General  Entomology, 338 

External  Anatomy  and  Morphology, 329 

Internal  Anatomy  and  Histology, 339 

(a)  The  nervous  system, 330 

(b)  Organs  of  special  sense  and  their  physiology,     .     .     .  330 

(c)  Organs  of  circulation  and  respiration, 331 

{d)  Organs  of  digestion, 331 

{e)  Organs  of  locomotion  and  their  physiology,  ....  332 
(/)  Organs  of  reproduction,  ovipositor,  etc., 332 

Embryology  of  Insects 333 

Phytogeny  or  Origin  of  Insects, 333 

Insects  and  the  Fertilization  of  Plants, 333 

Geographical  Distribution, 333 

Fossil  Insects, 334 

Economic  Entomology, 334 

Glossary 337 

Index, 355 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  I. 
THE  STRUCTURE   OF  INSECTS. 

"When  we  consider  that  the  class  of  insects  alone  comprises 
about  four  fifths  of  the  animal  kingdom,  and  that  there 
are  upwards  of  200,000  species  in  collections,  it  would  seem 
a  hopeless  task  to  define  what  an  insect  is.  One  may  study 
a  definition  of  the  class  of  insects,  and  read  pages  and  even 
volumes  about  the  structure  of  insects  in  general,  but  such 
knowledge  would  be  second-hand,  and  it  is  far  better  for 
the  beginner  to  simply  catch  a  grasshopper,  and  carefully 
examine  it  for  himself.  By  so  doing  he  will  learn  more  in 
a  few  hours  than  the  mere  student  of  books  will  accomplish 
in  weeks.  Still,  one  who  knows  nothing  about  insects  needs 
some  guide  to  give  the  names  to  the  parts  readily  seen,  and 
to  point  out  those  organs  and  their  details  which  might  be 
overlooked. 

We  will  suppose  that  the  beginner  has  a  common  red- 
legged  locust  or  grasshopper  in  his  hand;  and  in  order  to 
readily  examine  it  he  should  be  provided  with  a  Coddington 
or  any  other  lens,  and  a  stand  to  hold  it  when  both  hands 
are  needed  to  dissect  the  specimen,  a  pair  of  slender  iron 
forceps,  and  a  needle  mounted  in  a  pine  handle  with  which 
to  separate  the  legs  and  mouth-parts.  Directions  for  col- 
lecting and  dissecting  insects  will  be  found  in  the  sixth 
chapter..  Meanwhile  we  may  say  that  any  boy  or  girl  can 
catch  a  grasshopper,  and  after  it  is  caught  it  may  be  killed 


2  ENTOMOLOGY. 

without  its  suffering  any  pain,  by  throwing  it  into  a  bottle 
containing  cotton  saturated  Avith  ether.  It  may  when  dead 
be  taken  out  of  the  collecting-bottle  and  dried.  It  is  most 
convenient  to  pin  it.  This  may  be  done  by  thrusting  a 
slender  insect-pin  through  the  collar.  For  class  use  it  is 
better  to  preserve  a  lot  of  grasshoppers  in  alcohol;  before 
using  them  they  can  be  soaked  in  water  to  take  out  the 
alcoholic  odor,  and  can  then  be  easily  handled  without 
being  pinned,  and  the  wings  unfolded  or  the  mouth-parts 
and  legs  moved  without  their  breaking  off. 

External  Anatomy. — On  making  a  superficial  examination 
of  the  locust  {Ckiloptemis  femnr-ruhrum),  or  the  Rocky 
Mountain  locust  (C.  spretus),  its  body  will  be  seen  to  con- 
sist of  an  external  crust,  or  thick,  hard  integument,  pro- 
tecting the  soft  parts  or  viscera  within.  This  integument 
is  at  intervals  segmented  or  jointed,  the  segments  more  or, 
less  like  rings,  which,  in  turn,  are  subdivided  into  pieces. 
These  segments  are  most  simple  and  easily  comprehended 
in  the  abdomen  or  hind-body,  which  is  composed  of  ten  of 
them.  The  body  consists  of  seventeen  of  these  segments, 
variously  modified  and  more  or  less  imperfect  and  difficult 
to  make  out,  especially  at  each  extremity  of  the  body — 
i.e.,  in  the  head  and  at  the  end  of  the  abdomen.  These 
seventeen  segments,  moreover,  are  grouped  into  three  re- 
gions, four  composing  the  head,  three  the  thorax,  and  ten 
the  hind-body,  or  abdomen.  On  examining  the  abdomen, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  rings  are  quite  perfect,  and  that 
each  segment  may  be  divided  into  an  upper  (tergal),  a  lateral 
(pleural),  and  an  under  (sternal)  portion,  or  arc  (Fig.  1,  A). 
These  parts  are  respectively  called  fergite,  pleurite,  and 
sternite;  while  the  upper  region  of  the  body  is  called  the 
tergum,  the  lateral  the  pleurum,  and  the  ventral  or  under 
portion  the  sternum. 

As  these  parts  are  less  complicated  in  the  abdomen,  we 
will  first  study  this  region  of  the  body,  and  then  examine  the 
more  complex  thorax  and  head.  The  abdomen  is  a  little 
over  half  as  long  as  the  body,  the  tergum  extending  far 


THE  STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS. 


down  on  the  side  and  merging  into  the  pleurnm  witliont 
any  suture  or  seam.  The  pleurum  is  indicated  by  the  row 
of  spiracles,  which  will  be  noticed  farther  on.     The  sternum 


CVnJtfcnav^ 


TaY8U8< 


loXyuSj 


vLobYawi 


/ 


fCeitusQ 


Fig.    1.— External  anatomy   of    Calopienus   spretus,   the   head    and   thorax 
disjointed.— Kingsley  del. 


4  ENTOMOLOGY. 

forms  the  ventral  side  of  the  abdomen,  and  meets  the  pleu- 
rum  on  the  side  of  the  body. 

In  the  female  (Fig.  1,  B)  the  abdomen  tapers  some- 
what toward  the  end  of  the  body,  to  which  are  appended 
the  two  pairs  of  stout,  hooked  spines,  forming  the  oviposi- 
tor (Fig.  1,  B,  r,  r').  The  anus  is  situated  above  the  upper 
and  larger  pair,  and  the  external  opening  of  the  oviduct 
is  situated  between  the  smaller  and  lower  pair  of  spines; 
it  is  bounded  on  the  ventral  side  by  a  movable,  triangular 
acute  flap,  the  egg-guide  (Fig.  1,  B,  e  g,  and  Fig.  4). 

The  thorax,  as  seen  in  Fig.  1,  consists  of  three  seg- 
ments, called  the  prothorax,  mesothorax,  and  metathorax,  or 
fore,  middle,  and  hind  thoracic  rings.  They  each  bear  a 
pair  of  legs,  and  the  two  hinder  each  a  pair  of  wings.  The 
upper  portion  (tergum)  of  the  middle  and  hind  segments, 
owing  to  the  presence  of  wings  and  the  necessity  of  freedom 
of  movement  to  the  muscles  of  flight,  is  divided  or  differ- 
entiated into  two  pieces,  the  scutum  and  t^cutellum* 
(Fig.  1),  the  former  the  larger,  extending  across  the  back; 
the  scutellum  being  a  smaller,  central,  shield -like  piece. 
The  protergum,  or  what  is  usually  in  the  books  called  the 
prothorax,  represents  either  the  scutum  or  both  scutum 
and  scutellum,  the  two  not  being  differentiated. 

The  fore  wings  are  long  and  narrow,  and  thicker  than 
the  hinder,  which  are  broad,  thin,  and  membranous,  and 
most  active  in  flight,  being  folded  up  like  a  fan  when  at 
rest  and  tucked  away  out  of  sight  under  the  fore  wings, 
which  act  as  wing-covers. 

Turning  now  to  the  side  of  the  body  under  the  insertion 
of  the  wings  (Fig.  2),  we  see  that  the  side  of  each  of  the 
middle  and  hind  thoracic  rings  is  composed  of  two  pieces, 
the  anterior,  epistermim,  resting  on  the  sternum,  with  the 
epimerum  behind  it;  these  pieces  are  vertically  high  and 


*  There  are  in  many  insects,  as  in  many  Lepidoptera,  Hymenoptera, 
and  Neuroptera,  four  tergal  pieces — i.e.,  praescutum,  scutum,  scutel- 
lum, and  postscutellum,  the  first  and  fourth  pieces  being  usually 
very  small  and  often  obsolete. 


THE  STBUCTUBE  OF  INSECTS. 


S-s 


o.  I 

to     M 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


narrow,  and  to  them  the  leg  is  inserted  by  three  pieces, 
called  respectively  coxa,  trochantine,  and  troclianter  (see 
Fig.  2),  the  latter  forming  a  true  joint  of  the  leg. 

The  legs  consist  of  five  well-marked  joints,  the  femur 
(thigh),  tibia  (shank),  and  tarsus  (foot),  the  latter  consist- 
ing in  the  locust  of  three  joints,  the  third  bearing  two  large 
claws  with  a  pad  between  them.  The  hind  legs,  especially 
the  femur  and  tibia,  are  very  large,  adapted  for  hopping. 

The  sternum  is  broad  and  large  in  the  middle  and  hind 
thorax,  but  small  and  obscurely  limited  in  the  prothorax, 
with  a  large  conical  projection  between  the  legs. 

The  head  in  the  adult  locust  is  mainly  composed  of  a  sin- 
gle piece  called  the  epicranium  (Figs.  3  and  3,  E),  which 
carries  the  compound  eyes,  ocelli,  or  simple  eyes  (Fig.  3, 
o),  and  antennse.  While  there  are  in  real- 
ity four  primary  segments  in  the  head  of 
all  winged  insects,  corresponding  to  the 
four  pairs  of  appendages  in  the  head,  the 
posterior  three  segments,  after  early  em- 
bryonic life  in  the  locust,  become  obsolete, 
and  are  mainly  re]3resented  by  their  ap- 
pendages and  by  small  portions  to  which  the 
appendages  are  attached.  The  epicranium 
„  „  „    „     ^  .       „  represents    the     antennal    segment,    and 

Fig. 3.— Front  view  of         ^  to  ' 

the  head  of  c.  spre-  mostlv  Corresponds  to  the  tergum  of  the 

IMS.      E,    epicrani-  m  p      i 

um;  c,  ciypeus;i,   segment.     The  antennae,  or  fcclcrs,  are  lu- 

labrum;  oo,  ocelli;  ,     i    •       ^         ,       j?    ,1  i    i     . 

e,  eye;  a,  antenna;   serted  in  iront  01  the  eyes,  and  between 

wd,  mandible;  JHX,     ,i  ■     l^  l      •  n  •         ^ 

portion  of  maxilla  them  IS  the  anterior  ocellus,  or  simple  eye, 

Ta^nimT  p,  "maxa^  while  the  two  posterior  ocelli  are  situated 

'ubiay'^'patpus!—  abovc  the  insertion  of  the  antennae.     In 

Kingsieydei.  front   of   the   epicraniuiii   is   the   cli/peus 

(Fig.   3),  a  piece  nearly  twice  as  broad  as  long.     To  the 

clypeus  is  attached  a  loose  flap,  which  covers  the  jaws  when 

they  are  at  rest.     This  is  the  upper  lip  or  lahvum  (Fig.  3). 

There  are  three  pairs  of  mouth-appendages:  first,  the  true 

jaws  or  mandibles  (Fig.  1),  which  are  single- jointed,  and 

are  broad,  short,  solid,  with  a  toothed  cutting  and  grinding 


THE  STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS.  7 

edge,  adapted  for  biting.  The  mandibles  are  situated  on 
each  side  of  the  mouth-opening.  Behind  tlie  mandibles 
are  the  maxillae  (Fig.  1),  which  are  divided  into  three  lobes, 
the  inner  armed  with  teeth  or  spines,  the  middle  lobe  un- 
armed and  spatula-shaped,  while  the  outer  forms  a  five- 
jointed  feeler  called  the  maxillary  palpus.  The  maxillae  are 
accessory  jaws,  and  probably  serve  to  hold  and  arrange  the 
food  to  be  ground  by  the  true  jaws.  The  floor  of  tlie  mouth 
is  formed  by  the  labium  (Figs.  1  and  2),  which  in  reality 
is  composed  of  the  two  second  maxillae,  soldered  together  in 
the  middle,  the  two  halves  being  drawn  separately  in  Fig.  1. 

Within  the  mouth,  and  situated  upon  the  labium,  is  the 
tongue  (lingua),  which  is  a  large,  membranous,  partly  hol- 
low expansion  of  the  base  of  the  labrum;  it  is  somewhat 
pyriform,  slightly  keeled  above,  and  covered  with  fine,  stiff 
hairs,  which,  when  magnified,  are  seen  to  be  long,  rough, 
chitinous  spines,  with  one  or  two  slight  points  or  tubercles 
on  the  side.  These  stiff  hairs  probably  serve  to  retain  the 
food  in  the  mouth,  and  are,  apparently,  of  the  same  struc- 
ture as  the  teeth  in  the  crop.  The  base  of  the  tongue  is 
narrow,  and  extends  back  to  near  the  pharynx  (or  entrance 
to  the  gullet),  there  being  on  the  floor  of  the  mouth,  behind 
the  tongue,  two  oblique  slight  ridges,  covered  with  stiff, 
golden  hairs,  like  those  on  the  tongue. 

The  student  may  separate  the  body,  after  being  hardened 
in  alcohol,  into  the  parts  represented  by  Fig.  1,  as  indicated 
by  the  table  on  the  following  page,  and  neatly  gum  them  in 
thei]-  proper  order  iipon  a  card  with  liquid  glue  or  mucilage. 

Internal  Anatomy. — The  internal  anatomy  may  be  studied 
by  removing  the  dorsal  wall  of  the  body,  and  also  by  harden- 
ing the  insect  several  days  in  alcohol  and  cutting  it  in  two 
longitudinally  by  a  sharp  scalpel. 

The  (BsopTiagus  (Fig.  4,  ce)  is  short  and  curved,  contin- 
uous with  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  There  are  several  longi- 
tudinal irregular  folds  on  the  inner  surface.  It  terminates 
in  the  centre  of  the  head,  directly  under  the  brain  or  supra- 
cesophageal  ganglion,   the  end  being  indicated  by  several 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


1st  segment:  Prothorax. 


TABULAR  VIEW  OF  THE  EXTERNAL  PARTS  OF  AN 

INSECT'S  BODY. 

Head  (composed  of  4  segments). 

r  Occiput. 
T,    .      o  ,,      1  •  •  i  *     Epicranium,  bearing  the  antennae 

Partsoftheskm.ormtegument'  I    fypg^jg  ^     [and  eyes. 

^"^^^ I  Labrum,  upper  lip. 

I^Epipharynx. 
-r.    .      J.  .,      1  .  .  i  .    (  Gena,  cheeks. 

Partsoftheskm,ormtegument,\  j  Mentum,  chin. 

sides  and  below |  Gula  |  s^bmentum. 

r  Antennae,  feelers. 
.J  J  Mandibles,  jaws. 

Appendages ^-^^^  Maxills,  with  their  palpi. 

[2d  Maxills,  or  labium,  with  its 
[palpi. 
Thorax  (composed  of  3  segments). 

Pronotum. 

Propleurum,  with  a  spiracle. 
Prosternum. 
Fore  legs. 
'  a  ["  Prsescutum. 
"     Scutum. 
Scutellum. 
Postscutellum. 
[  Patagia. 
'^  i  Episternum. 

Mesopleurum  \  Epimerum. 

(  Spiracle. 
Fore  wings. 
Middle  legs. 

r  Prsescutum. 

Mesono.™    |-;X-,. 

[  Postscutellum. 
Hind  wings. 
Hind  legs. 

Abdomen  (composed  of  10  and  in  some  insects  11  segments). 

(  Tergite. 
Segment^  or  uromeres -|  Pleurite. 

(  Stern ite  or  Urosternite. 
Ovipositor. 
Anal  stylets,  cerci  or  cercopoda  (1  pair) — 8  pairs  of  spiracles. 


2d  segment:  Meso thorax. 


3d  segment:  Metathorax. 


THE  STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS.  9 

small  conical  valves  closing  the  passage,  thus  preventing 
the  regurgitation  of  the  food.  The  two  salivary  glands  con- 
sist each  of  a  bunch  of  follicles,  emptying  by  a  common  duct 
into  the  floor  of  the  mouth. 

The  oesophagus  is  succeeded  by  the  crop  {ingluvies).  It 
dilates  rapidly  in  the  head,  and  again  enlarges  before  pass- 
ing out  of  the  head,  and  at  the  point  of  first  expansion  or 
enlargement  there  begins  a  circular  or  oblique  series  of  folds, 
armed  with  a  single  or  two  alternating  rows  of  simple  spine- 
like teeth.  Just  after  the  crop  leaves  the  head,  the  folds 
become  longitudinal,  the  teeth  arranged  in  rows,  each  row 
formed  of  groups  of  from  three  to  six  teeth,  which  point 
backward  so  as  to  push  the  food  into  the  stomach.  It  is 
in  the  crop  that  the  "molasses"  thrown  out  by  the  locust 
originates. 

The  proventriculus  is  very  small  in  the  locust,  easily  over- 
looked in  dissection,  while  in  the  green  grasshoppers  it  is 
large  and  armed  with  sharp  teeth.  A  transverse  section  of 
the  crop  of  the  cricket  shows  that  there  are  six  large  irreg- 
ular teeth  armed  with  spines  and  hairs  (Fig.  5).  It  forms 
a  neck  or  constriction  between  the  crop  and  true  stomach. 
It  may  be  studied  by  laying  the  alimentary  canal  open  with 
a  pair  of  fine  scissors,  and  is  then  seen  to  be  armed  with 
six  flat  folds,  suddenly  terminating  posteriorly,  where  the 
true  stomach  (chyle-stomach,  ventriculus)  begins.  The 
chyle-stomach  is  about  one  half  as  thick  as  the  crop,  when 
the  latter  is  distended  with  food,  and  is  of  nearly  the  same 
diameter  throughout,  being  much  paler  than  the  reddish 
crop,  and  of  a  flesh-color. 

From  the  anterior  end  arise  six  large  pouches  called  gas- 
tric ccBca,  which  are  dilatations  of  the  true  chyle-stomach, 
and  probably  serve  to  present  a  larger  surface  from  which 
the  chyle  may  escape  into  the  body-cavity  and  mix  with  the 
blood,  there  being  in  insects  no  lacteal  vessels  or  lymphatic 
system. 

The  stomach  ends  at  the  posterior  edge  of  the  fourth  ab- 
dominal segment  in  a  slight  constriction,  at  which  point 


10 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


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TEE  STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS. 


11 


(pyloric  end)  the  urinary  tubes  {vasa  urinaria,  Fig.  4,  ?«•) 
arise.  These  are  arranged  in  ten  groups  of  about  fifteen 
tubes,  so  that  there  are  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  long, 
fine  tubes  in  all. 

The  intestine  (ileum)  lies  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  abdominal 
segments. 

Behind  the  intestine  is  the  colon,  which  is  smaller  than 
the  intestine  proper,  and  makes  a  partial  twist.  The  colon 
suddenly  expands  into  the  rectum,  with  six  large  rectal 
glands  on  the  outside,  held  in  place  by  six  muscular  bands 
attached  anteriorly  to  the  hinder  end  of  the  Colon.  The 
rectum  turns  up  toward  its  end,  and  the  vent  is  situated 
just  below  the  supra-anal 
plate. 

Having  described  the  diges- 
tive canal  of  the  locust,  with 
which  that  of  the  beetle  (Fig. 
6)  and  the  fly  (Fig,  7)  may 
be  compared,  we  may  state  in 
a  summary  way  the  functions 
of  the  different  divisions  of 
the  tract.  The  food  after  be- 
ing cut  up  by  the  jaws  is  acted 
upon  while  in  the  crop  by  the 
salivary  fluid;  which  is  alka- 

linp  nnrl  7-in«s!P«<3P«  tliP  ^wc\Y\  ^'IG- ^—rransverse  section  of  the  pro- 
line, anu  possesses  llie  pi  op-  ventriculus  of  Gryllus  cinereus  of 
f^viv  n«  in  vprfplivqfpa  ni  Europe ;  muc,  muscular  walls ;  r, 
eity,  as  in     \eii;eDiai;es,      or     homy  ridge  between  the  large  teeth! 

rapidly  transforming  the  -After  Minot. 
starchy  elements  of  the  food  into  soluble  and  assimilable 
glucose.  The  digestive  action  carried  on  in  the  crop  {inqlu- 
vies)  then,  in  a  vegetable-feeding  insect  like  the  locust, 
results  in  the  conversion  of  the  starchy  matters  into  glucose 
or  sugar.  This  process  goes  on  very  slowly.  When  diges- 
tion in  the  crop  has  ended,  the  food  submitted  to  an  ener- 
getic pressure  by  the  walls  of  the  crop,  which  make  peri- 
staltic contractions,  filters  gradually  through  the  short,  small 
proventriculus,    directed   by   the    furrows    and    chitinous 


12  ENTOMOLOGY. 

projections  lining  it.  The  apparatus  of  teeth  does  not 
triturate  the  food,  which  has  been  sufficiently  comminuted 
by  the  jaws.  This  is  proved  by  the  fact,  says  Plateau,  that 
the  parcels  of  food  are  of  the  same  form  and  size  as  those 
in  the  crop,  before  passing  through  the  proventriculus. 
The  six  large  lateral  pouches  (caeca)  emptying  into  the 
commencement  of  the  stomach  (ventriculus)  are  true  glands. 


Fig.  6.— Digestive  canal  of  a  Carabid  beetle.  6,  cesopbagiis;  c,  crop;  d,  proven- 
triculus; /,  chyle-stomach;  g,  posterior  flivision  of  the  stomach;  i,  the  two 
pairs  of  urinary  tubes;  h,  intestine;  k,  rectum;  /,  anal  glands.— After  Dufour, 
from  Judeich  and  Nitsche. 

which  secrete  an  alkaline  fluid,  probably  aiding  in  digestion. 
In  the  stomach  (ventriculus)  the  portion  of  the  food  which 
has  resisted  the  action  of  the  crop  is  submitted  to  the  action 
of  a  neutral  or  alkaline  liquid,  never  acid,  secreted  by  special 
local  glands  or  by  the  lining  epithelium.  In  the  ileum  and 
colon  active  absorption  of  the  liquid  portion  of  the  food 
takes  place,  and  the  intestine  proper  (ileum  and  colon)  is 
thus  the  seat  of  the  secondary  digestive  phenomena.  The 
reaction  of  the  secretion  is  neutral  or  alkaline.  The  rectum 
is  the  stercoral  reservoir.  It  may  be  empty  or  full  of  liquids, 
but  never  contains  any  gas.  The  liquid  products  secreted 
by  the  urinary  tubes  are  here  accumulated,  and  in  certain 
circumstances  here  deposit  the  calculi  or  crystals  of  oxalic, 
uric,  or  phosphatic  acid.  Insects,  says  Plateau,  have  no 
special  vessel  to  carry  off  the  chyle,  such  as  the  lacteals  or 
lymphatics  of  vertebrates;  the  products  of  digestion — viz., 
salts  in  solution,  peptones,  sugar  in  solution,  and  emulsion- 
ized  greasy  matters — pass  through  the  fine  coatings  of  the 


THE  STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS. 


13 


digestive  canal  by  osmosis,  and  mingle  outside  of  this  caual 
with  the  currents  of  blood  which  pass  along  the  ventral  and 
lateral  parts  of  the  body. 

Into  the  pyloric  end  of  the  stomach  empty  the  urinary 
tubes,  their  secretions  passing  into  the  intestine.  These 
organs  are  exclusively  depuratory  and  urinary,  relieving 
the  body  of  the  waste  products.  The  liquid  which  they  se- 
crete contains  urea  (?),  uric  acid,  and  urates  in  abundance, 
hippuric  acid  (?),  chloride  of  sodium,  phosphates,  carbonate 
of  lime,  oxalate  of  lime  in  quantity,  leucine,  and  coloring 
matters. 

The  nervous  system  of  the  locust,  as  of  other  insects,  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  nerve-centres,  or  ganglia,  which  are  cou- 


FiG.  7.— Digestive  canal  of  Sarcop/ioga  c«)-)ifn/  .  a,  salivary  gland;  6,  oesoph- 
agus; /,  g,  stomach;  h,  intestine;  t,  urinary  luoe.s;  fc,  rectum. — From  Judeich 
and  Nitsche. 


nected  by  two  cords  (commissures),  the  two  cords  in  certain 
parts  of  the  body  in  some  insects  united  into  one.  There 
are  in  the  locust  ten  ganglia,  two  in  the  head,  three  in  the 
thorax,  and  five  in  the  abdomen.  The  first  ganglion  is 
rather  larger  than  the  others,  and  is  called  the  "brain." 
The  brain  rests  upon  the  oesophagus,  whence  its  name, 
supra-oesophageal  ganglion.  From  the  brain  arise  the  large, 
short,  optic  nerves  (Fig.  8,  op),  which  go  to  the  compound 
eyes,  and  from  the  front  arise  the  three  slender  filaments 
which  are  sent  to  the  three  ocelli  (Fig.  8,  oc).  From  im- 
mediately in  front,  low  down,  arise  the  antennal  nerves 
(Fig.  4,  at). 

The  infra- oesophageal  ganglion  (Fig.  8,  if),  as  its  name 
implies,  lies  under  the  oesophagus  at  the  base  of  the  head. 


14 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


under  a  bridge  of  cliitine  (the  teutoriiim)  and  directly  be- 
hind the  tongue.    It  is  connected  with  the  supra-CBSophageal 

».£  "o  »2  a-a 
M  -Si;-«  ">  G  °s 
™><-,  ?5  "^  *^  dj  o  a 

•-—  -    ,  r-  o  « 


-     ■  -i^  g 


C~  cS  >  a)  (U  M  S 
^  3-2?  o«  2  3 

ii- §|g-l 

a,*"  .-(c  c3  w  oi  — 
fi  ^  rT'S  ®  E-  o  03 

^  S        .2  fx*^  » 

.k  S*^'^  *^  ^£1   all 


THE  STRUCTURE  OE  INSECTS. 


15 


ganglion  by  two  commissnres  passing  up  each  side  of  the 
oesophagus.     From  the  under  side  of  the  infra-oesophageal 


AGi'i 


^^^g  ^^a'W 


Fig.  9.—^,  nervous  system  of  ant,  Formica  nifa;  B,  Melolontha;  C,  flesh-fly 
Sarcophaga  carnaria;  Stg,  frontal  ganglion  of  the  sympathetic  nerve-  oSq' 
bram;  wSg.infra-oesophageal  ganglion;  Bff,  thoracic  ganglia;  4  (?,  abdominal 
ganglia  :  the  dotted  lines  passing  through  homologous  ganglia.— From  Ju- 
deich  and  Nitsche. 


10.— Supra-oesophageal  ganglion  and  visceral  (or  sympathetic)  nervous 
stem  of  the  silk-wornj  moth  { Bombyx  mori).   gs,  supra-oesophageal  ganglion 


Fig. 

svster 

/.I  u_„:„,i,  r  ' a~......^,.     »u,  owjj.ti-uisourjjunj^cai  ganglion 

(  brain  );  a,  antennary  nerve;  o,  optic  nerve;  ?-,  azvgos  trunk  of  the  visceral 
nervous  system;  »•',  its  roots  arising  from  the  supra-oesophageal  ganglion- 
s.  paired  nerve  with  its  ganglionic  enlargements,  s'  s".— After  Brandt  froni 
Gegenbaur.  '  '^•""' 


16  ENTOMOLOGY. 

ganglion  arise  three  pairs  of  nerves,  which  are  distributed  to 
the  mandil)les,  maxilla?,  and  labium.  The  mandibular  nerves 
project  forward  and  arise  from  the  anterior  part  of  the 
ganglion,  near  the  origin  of  the  supra-oesophageal  commis- 


FiG.  11.— A  Carabus  beetle  in  the  act  of  walking  or  running.  Three  legs  (Lj, 
ifj,  L3)  are  directed  forward,  while  the  others  (i?,,  Lj,  R3),  which  are  directed 
backward  toward  the  tail,  have  ended  their  activity,  a  b,  c  d,  and  e  /  are 
curves  described  by  the  end  of  the  tibiee  and  passing  back  to  the  end  of  the 
body;  b  h.  d  i,  and  f  g  are  curves  described  by  the  same  legs  during  their  pas- 
sive change  of  position.— After  Graber. 

sures,  while  the  maxillary  and  labial  nerves  are   directed 
downward  into  those  organs. 

The  sympathetic  ganglia  are  three  in  number;  one  situ- 
uated  just  behind  the  supra-oesophageal  ganglion  (Fig.  8, 


HOW  INSECTS   WALK  AND  FLY. 


17 


as),  resting  on  the  oesophagus,  and  two  others  situated  each 
side  of  the  crop,  low  down.  Each  of  the  two  posterior 
ganglia  is  supplied  by  a  nerve  from  the  anterior  ganglion. 
Two  nerves  pass  under  the  crop  connecting  the  posterior 
ganglia,  and  from  each  posterior  ganglion  a  nerve  is  sent 
backward  to  the  end  of  the  proventriculus.  A  pair  of 
nerves  pass  under  the  u?sophagus  from  each  side  of  the 
anterior  sympathetic  ganglion,  and  another  pair  pass  down- 
ward to  a  round  white  body,  whose  nature  is  unknown 
(Fig.  8,  u). 

How  Insects  Walk  and  Fly. — In  walking,  the  locust, 
beetle,  or,  in  fact,  any  insect, 
raises  and  puts  down  its  six  legs 
alternately,  as  may  be  seen  by 
observing  the  movements  of  a 
beetle  (Fig.  11).  As  Carlet 
states,  an  insect's  legs  move 
according  to  the  following 
formula: 


With  the  claws  on  their  fore 
legs  they  pull  themselves  for- 
ward; the  middle  legs  seem  to 
support  and  steady  the  body, 
also  pushing  it  somewhat;  while 
the  hind  legs  in  many  beetles 
push  the  body  forward.* 
While  the  structure  of  the  limb 
of  a  vertebrate  and  insect  is  not 
homologous,  yet  the  mechanism  ^^^ 
or  functions  of  the  parts  are  in 
the  main  the  same  as  indicated 
in  Figs.  12  to  15. 

The  footprints  of  insects  are 


12— Section  of  the  fore  leg  of  a 
Stag  beetle,  showing  the  muscles. 
S.  extensor,  B.  flexor,  of  the  leg;  s, 
extensor,  b,  flexor,  of  the  femur; 
o,  femur;  n,  tibia;  /,  tarsus;  fc, 
claw;  l09i,  s,  extensor,  6,  flexor,  of 
the  femoro-tibial  joint,  both  en- 
larged.—After  Graber. 


*  See  Miall  and  Deany's  "  The  Cockroach. 


18 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


sometimes  left  in  fine  wet  sand  on  the  banks  of  streams  or 
by  the  seaside. 

In  Fig.  16  the  black  dots  are  made  by  the  fore,  the  clear 


Fig.  13.— Diagram  of  the  knee-joint  of  a  vertebrate  (A)  and  an  insect's  limb  iB). 
a,  upper,  6,  lower,  shank,  united  at  A  by  a  capsular  joint,  at  S  by  a  folding 
joint;  d,  extensor  or  lifting  muscle;  d',  flexor  or  lowering  muscle  of  the  lower 
joint.    The  dotted  line  indicates  in  A  the  contour  of  the  leg.— After  Graber. 

circle  by  the  middle,  and  the  black  dashes  by  the  hind  legs 
(Graber). 

The  wings  are  developed  as  folds  of  the  integument,  and 


Fig.  14. — Cross-section  through  the  thorax  of 
a  butterly.  a  b,  muscles  for  raising,  c  d, 
for  drawing  downward  and  inward,  the  legs; 
d,  entothorax  arising  from  the  sternum,  k, 
st\  ng,  wing-vein;  g,  fulcrum,  or  turning- 
point;  c  h,  muscles  for  lowering,  b  f,  for 
raising,  the  wing;  i  k  and  m  n.  muscles  for 
lowering,  lop,  for  raising,  the  dorsal  plates. 


Fig.  15.-  Diagram  of  muscles  of 
an  insect's  leg.  Besides  the  mus- 
cles at  the  insertion  of  the  limb 
for  raising  and  lowei-ing  it,  in 
the  trochanter  (tr)  is  a  muscle 
for  rotating  the  leg  ;  /,  for 
stretching  the  tibia  (//6);  n,  flex- 
or of  tibia;  o,  flexor  of  the  tar- 
sus; VI.  reti'actor  of  the  tarsus 
and  claws  {cl). — After  Graber. 


HOW  INSECTS  BREATHE. 


19 


IV,o,l 


?7 


> 


90/ 


7- 


d 


II 


strengthened  by  hollow  rods  called  "veins;"  their  branches 
being  the  "venules."  There  are  in  the  wings  of  most  insects 
six  main  veins — i.e.,  the  costal,  the  subcostal, 
median,  submedian,  internal,  and  anal.  They 
are  hollow  and  usually  contain  an  air-tube, 
and  a  nerve  often  accompanies  the  trachea  in 
the  principal  veins.  The  arterial  blood  from 
the  heart  (as  seen  in  the  cockroach  by  Mose- 
ley)  flows  directly  into  the  costal,  subcostal, 
median,  and  submedian  veins;  here  it  is  in 
part  aerated,  and  returns  to  the  heart  from 
the  liinder  edge  of  the  wings  through  the 
hinder  smaller  branches  and  the  main  trunks 
of  the  internal  and  anal  veins.  So  that  the 
wings  of  insects  act  as  lungs  as  well  as  organs 
of  flight.  For  the  latter  purpose,  the  prin- 
cipal veins  are  situated  near  the  front  edge 
of  the  wing,  called  the  costa,  and  thus  the 
wing  is  strengthened  where  the  most  strain 
comes  during  the  beating  of  the  air  in  flight. 

The  wing  of  an  insect  in  making  tlie  strokes  during  flight 
describes  a  figure  8  in  the  air.  A  fly's  wing  makes  330 
revolutions  in  a  second,  executing  therefore  660  simple 
oscillations. 

How  Insects  Breathe. — Insects  breathe  by  means  of  a 
complicated  system  of  air-tubes  ramifying  throughout  the 
body,  the  air  entering  through  a  row  of  s])iracles,  or  breath- 
ing-holes {stigmata),  in  the  sides  of  the  body.  There  are 
in  locusts  two  pairs  of  thoracic  and  eight  pairs  of  abdominal 
spii-acles.  The  first  thoracic  pair  (Fig.  3)  is  situated  on 
the  membrane  connecting  the  prothorax  and  mesothorax, 
and  is  covered  by  the  hinder  edge  of  the  pronotum  (usually 
called  prothorax).  The  second  spiracle  is  situated  on  the 
posterior  edge  of  the  mesothorax.  There  are  eight  abdominal 
spiracles,  the  first  one  situated  just  in  front  of  the  auditory 
sac  or  tympanum,  and  the  remaining  seven  are  small  open- 
ings along  the  side  of  the  abdomen  (Fig.  2).     From  these 


Fig.  16.  —  Foot- 
tracks  of  Necro- 
phorus  vespillo. 
Natural  size. — 
After  Graber. 


20 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


spiracles  air-tubes  pass  into  the  interior,  sending  branches 
into  every  part  and  appendage  of  the  body,  inchiding  the 
antennae,  mouth-parts,  and  wings.  There  is  thus  an  intricate 
system  of  air-tubes,  the  finer  branches  of  which  end  in  cells, 
through  whose  walls  the  air  passes  out  and  mixes  with  the 
blood.  Moreover,  certain  tracheas  expand  into  large  air- 
sacs,  of  which  there  are  in  the  locust  nearly  fifty  in  the 
head;  while  there  are  a  few,  but  large,  sacs  in  the  thorax 
and  hind  body  which,  when  filled  with  air,  serve  to  lighten 
the  body  by  increasing  its  bulk. 

A  B  G 


Fio.  17. — A^  thoracic  stigma  of  the  house-fly:  S6,  valve  wliich  closes  the  open- 
ing. B,  C,  diagrammatic  figures  of  the  internal  apparatus  which  closes  the 
trachea,  in  the  stag-beetle:  B,  the  trachea  open;  in  C\  closed:  at,  the  stigma, 
with  its  grated  lips:  Ct,  cuticula  of  the  body-walls;  Vk,  closing-pouch;  Vbii, 
closing-bow;  Vba.  closing-band;  M,  occlusor  muscle.— From  Judeich  and 
Nitsche,  after  Landois. 

Fig.  17  represents  at  B  and  C'the  elastic  ''bow,"  "band," 
and  muscle,  said  by  Landois  to  act  in  closing  the  trachea, 
so  that  pressure  may  be  exerted  upon  the  air  within  by  the 
muscles  of  the  abdomen.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
insects  breathe  by  the  abdomen  and  not  the  thorax. 

By  holding  the  red-legged  locust  in  the  hand  one  may 
observe  the  mode  of  breathing.  During  this  act  the  por- 
tion of  the  side  of  the  body  between  the  stigmata  and  the 
pleurum  contracts  and  expands;  the  contraction  of  this 
region  causes  the  spiracles  to  open.  The  general  movement 
is  caused  by  the  sternal,  moving  much  more  decidedly  than 
the  tergal,  portion  of  the  abdomen.  When  the  pleural 
portion  of  the  abdomen  is  forced  out,  the  soft  pleural  mem- 
branous region  under  the  fore  and  hind  wings  contracts,  as 


THE  SENSES  OF  INSECTS.  21 

do  the  tympanum  and  tlio  niombraiious  portions  at  the 
base  of  the  hind  legs.  When  the  terguni  or  dorsal  portion 
of  the  abdomen  falls  and  the  pleurnm  contracts,  the  spir- 
acles open;  their  opening  is  nearly  but  not  always  exactly 
co-ordinated  with  the  contractions  of  the  pleurum,  but 
as  a  rule  it  is.  There  were  sixty-five  contractions  in  a 
minute  in  a  locust  which  had  been  held  between  the  fingers 
about  ten  minutes.  It  was  noticed  that  when  the  abdomen 
expanded,  the  air-sacs  in  the  first  abdominal  ring  contracted. 
The  air  passes  into  the  spiracles  during  the  expansion  of  the 
abdomen.  In  most  insects,  sjiys  Plateau,  only  the  expira- 
tory movement  is  active;  inspiration  is  passive,  and  effected 
by  the  elasticity  of  the  body-walls.* 

It  is  evident  that  the  enormous  powers  of  flight  possessed 
by  the  locust,  especially  its  faculty  of  sailing  for  many  hours 
in  the  air,  are  due  to  the  presence  of  these  air-sacs,  whicJi 
float  it  up  in  the  atmospheric  sea,  increasing  the  bulk  of 
the  body,  without  rendering  it  heavier.  Other  insects  with 
a  powerful  flight,  as  the  bees  and  flies,  have  well-developed 
air-sacs,  but  they  are  less  numerous.  It  will  be  seen  that, 
once  having  taken  flight,  the  locust  can  buoy  itself  up  in 
the  air,  constantly  filling  and  refilling  its  internal  buoys  or 
balloons  with  little  muscular  exertion,  and  thus  be  borne 
along  by  favorable  winds  to  its  destination.  It  is  evident 
that  the  process  of  respiration  can  be  best  carried  on  in 
clear,  sunny  weather,  and  that  when  the  sun  sets,  or  the 
weather  is  cloudy  and  damp,  its  powers  of  flight  are  less- 
ened, owing  to  the  diminished  power  of  respiration. 

The  Senses  of  Insects. — It  is  difficult  to  explain  many  of 
the  actions  of  insects,  from  the  fact  that  it  is  hard  for  us  to 
appreciate  their  instincts  and  general  intelligence.  That 
they  have  sufficient  intellectual  powers  to  enable  them  to 
maintain  their  existence  may  be  regarded  as  an  axiom.  But 
insects  differ  much  in  intelligence,  and  also  in  the  degree  of 
perfection  of  the  organs  of  sense.     The  intelligence  of  in- 

*  See  Miall  and  Denny's  "The  Cockroach,"  p.  163. 


22 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


sects  depends,  of  course,  largely  on  the  development  of  the 
organs  of  special  sense,  especially  those  of  sight  and  smell. 

There  are  in  nearly  all  insects  two  kinds  of  eyes,  the  simple 
and  the  compound.  Of  the  simple  eyes  there  are  usually 
three,  arranged,  as  in  locusts,  bees,  etc.,  in  a  triangle  on  the 
top  of  the  head.  There  is  a  single  pair  of  compound  eyes. 
The  simple  eye,  or  ocellus,  consists  of  a  single  smooth,  shin- 
ing, convex  area,  called  the  cornea  or  facet,  while  in  the 
compound  eyes  there  are  many  facets,  which  can  be  seen 

k      f 


Fig.  18.— Lonfritudinal  section  of  the  faceted  eye  of  a  moth.  /,  the  rod-like 
ending  of  the  optic  nerve-fibres;  h.  crystalline  iens:  sn,  optic  nerve;  tt\ 
trachea  lost  in  fine  fibrillse  ;  t,  ch,  retina.— After  Leydig-,  from  Graber. 

with  a  hand-lens.  The  compound  eyes,  which  are  usually 
round  and  very  prominent,  differ  much  in  size  and  the 
number  of  facets,  the  latter  varying  from  fifty,  as  in  the  ant, 
to  several,  even  twenty,  thousand,  as  in  certain  beetles. 

The  structure  even  of  the  simple  eye  is  too  complicated 
for  description  here,  but  the  essential  parts  ares  the  cornea, 


TEE  SENSES  OF  INSECTS. 


23 


the  crystalline  coue,  the  retina,  and  the  optic  nerve.  How 
an  insect  sees  is  not  well  understood;  but 
the  corneal  lens  acts  like  an  ordinary 
glass  lens  to  condense  the  light,  or  form 
an  image  of  a  moving  body,  either  of 
which,  as  the  case  may  be,  falls  upon  the 
cone  behind  the  lens.  Behind  each  cone 
is  a  nerve-rod  {rhahdom)  which,  thougli 
externally  simple  for  most  of  its  length, 
is  found  on  cross-section  to  consist  of 
from  four  to  eight  sections,  called  rliah- 
domeres.  These  separate  in  front  to  re- 
ceive the  apex  of  the  cone  which  is  wedged 
in  between  them:  these  nerve-rods  are  en- 
veloped by  retinal  cells.  The  retina,  a 
mass  of  black  pigment-cells  enveloping 
the  ends  of  the  cones  and  their  stalks  or 
rods,  and  farther  comprising,  as  Hickson 
thinks,  all  that  part  of  the  eye  lying  be- 
tween the  crystalline  cones  and  true  optic 
nerve,  is  of  use,  especially  in  the  compound 
eye,  in  elaborating  and  combining  the 
image  formed  by  the  corneal  lens.  Now 
the  compound  eye  is  simply,  so  to  speak, 
a  compound  simple  eye :  not,  as  used  to  be 
thought,  a  collection  of  simple  eyes  johied 
together.  The  compound  eye  grows  out 
of,  or  is  "  differentiated  "  from,  a  simple 
eye;  it  is,  as  Patten  says,  "a  modified 
ocellus;"  and  this  observer  concludes  that 
the  majority  of  compound  eyes  are  adapted  "  for  the  per- 
ception of  inverted  images  formed  by  the  corneal  facets 
upon  the  crystalline  cones."  Of  course,  as  with  us,  the 
effect  upon  the  insect's  mind  is  that  of  seeing  a  single  object. 
Experiments  by  Plateau  on  the  simple  eyes  of  centipedes 
show  quite  decidedly  that  these  creatures  can  do  little  more 
than  distinguish  light  from  darkness;  they  do  not  make  out 
the  form  of  objects,  though  some  can  perceive  the  more 


D 
Fig. 


# 


19.  —  Diflferent 


forms  of  compound 
eyes.  A,  a  bug 
(Pyrrhocoris):  B, 
worker  bee;  C,  drone; 
D,male  Bibio. — From 
Judeich  and  Nitsche. 


24  ENTOMOLOar. 

obvious  movemeuts  of  bodies.  On  spiders,  which  do  not 
possess  compound  eyes,  Plateau  has  experimented,  and  he 
quite  fully  proves  that  in  general  they  are  near-sighted, 
only  perceiving  at  a  distance  the  displacement  of  large 
bodies;  while  the  hunting  spiders  (Attidae  and  Lycosidse) 
are  probably  the  only  kinds  which  see  the  movements  of 
small  bodies,  and  that  only  at  a  distance  of  between  2  and 
20  centimeters  (.  80  to  8  inches) ;  while  the  distance  at  which 
their  prey  is  seen  well  enough  to  be  captured  is  from  1  to 
2  centimeters  (.40  to  .80  inch);  and  he  adds,  even  at  this 
distance  spiders  cannot  see  distinctly,  because  they  often 
miss  grasping  their  booty. 

It  is  so  with  all  larvae,  grubs,  and  caterpillars,  as  well  as 
such  perfect  insects  as  do  not  have  compound  eyes;  they 
can  only  tell  daylight  from  darkness,  and  indistinctly  see 
moving  objects  near  at  hand. 

Even  insects  with  compound  eyes  have  a  less  perfect 
vision  than  formerly  supposed.  Both  Exner*  and  Plateau 
have  discarded  the  mosaic  theory  of  vision,  and  the  latter 
claims  that  insects,  such  as  flies  and  bees,  see  the  outline  of 
objects  indistinctly,  and  only  when  in  motion.  Plateau  ex- 
perimented in  the  following  way:  In  a  darkened  room,  with 
two  differently  shaped  but  nearly  equal  light-openings,  one 
square  and  open,  the  other  subdivided  into  a  number  of 
small  holes,  and  therefore  of  more  difficult  egress,  he  ob- 
served tlie  choices  of  opening  made  by  insects  flying  from 
the  other  end  of  the  room.  Careful  practical  provisions 
were  made  to  eliminate  error;  the  light-intensity  of  the  two 
openings  was  as  far  as  possible  equalized  or  else  noted,  and 
no  trees  or  other  external  objects  were  in  view.  The  room 
was  not  darkened  beyond  the  limit  at  which  ordinary  type 
ceases  to  be  readable,  otherwise  the  insects  refused  to  fly  (it 
is  well  known  that  during  the  passage  of  a  thick  cloud  in- 
sects usually  cease  to  fly).    These  observations  were  made  on 

*  Exner  finds  that  tlje  focus  of  a  corneal  lens  in  the  compound  eye 
of  Hydrophilus  is  about  3  mm.  away,  and  some  distance  behind  the 
eye.     (Miall  and  Denny's  "  The  Cockroach,"  p.  105,  note.) 


THE  SENSES  OF  INSECTS.  95 

insects  both  witli  and  without  ocelli,  in  addition  to  the  com- 
pound eyes,  and  with  the  same  results. 

From  repeated  experiments  on  flies,  bees,  etc.,  butterflies 
and  moths,  dragon-flies  and  beetles.  Plateau  concludes  that 
insects  with  compound  eyes  do  not  notice  differences  in 
form  of  openings  in  a  half-darkened  room,  but  fly  witli 
equal  readiness  to  the  apparently  easy  and  apparently  difii- 
cult  way  of  escape;  that  they  are  attracted  to  the  more 
intensely  lightened  oijening,  or  to  one  with  apparently 
greater  surface;  hence  he  concludes  that  they  cannot  dis- 
tinguish the  form  of  objects,  at  least  only  to  a  very  slight 
extent,  though  they  readily  perceive  objects  in  motion. 

It  is  well  known  that  honey-bees  on  leaving  their  hives 
fly  about  as  if  making  out  the  form  of  objects  near  their 
home,  and,  after  thus  taking  in  the  landmarks,  can  after  a 
few  flights  make  a  bee-line  from  a  distance  to  their  hives. 
While  this  would  seem  opposed  to  the  result  of  Plateau's 
experiments,  it  may  be  said  that  a  very  near-sighted  man 
can  find  his  way  home;  objects  even  perceived  very  indis- 
tinctly serving  to  guide  him.  Insects  also  without  doubt 
distinguish  the  difference  in  color  of  objects;  it  is  well  known 
that  butterflies  will  descend  from  a  position  high  in  the  air, 
mistaking  white  bits  of  paper  for  white  flowers;  while,  as 
we  have  observed,  white  butterflies  (Pieris)  prefer  white 
flowers,  and  yellow  butterflies  (Colias)  appear  to  alight  on 
yellow  flowers  in  preference  to  white  ones. 

Until  further  experiments  are  made,  it  seems  probable, 
then,  that  all  insects  do  not  have  acute  sight,  that  they  see 
objects  best  when  moving,  and  on  the  whole — except  dragon- 
flies  and  other  predaceous,  swiftly  flying  insects,  such  as 
certain  flies,  wasps  and  bees,  which  have  very  large  rounded 
eyes — insects  are  guided  mainly  rather  by  the  sense  of  smell 
than  that  of  sight. 

Some  insects  can  only  detect  light  from  darkness;  while, 
to  go  to  the  other  extreme,  a  few  may  see  ''with  clearness 
and  precision,  by  means  of  inverted  images,  either  a  land- 
scape or  small  neighboring  objects."     We  may  add  witli 


26  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Pcitteu:  "  The  difference  in  vision  is  due  more  to  the  powers 
of  association  tlian  to  variation  in  the  structiire  of  the  eye" 
(''Eyes  of  Molhisks  and  Arthropoda,''  Kaples,  p.  699). 

It  is  now  generally  agreed  tliat  the  olfactory  organs  are 
situated  in  the  antennae.  This  has  been  experimentally 
proved.  When  the  antennse  of  insects  which  show  a  decided 
dislike  to  strong  or  disagreeable  smells,  such  as  the  odor  of 
carbolic  acid,  oil  of  turpentine,  or  vinegar,  are  removed, 
the  actions  of  the  insects  operated  upon  show  that  they  are 
not  affected  by  such  smells;  insects  fond  of  decaying  flesh 
do  not  run  or  fly  toward  it  when  deprived  of  their  antennaj, 
nor  are  they,  after  losing  their  feelers,  able  to  go  to  their 
mates.  As  Forel  says,  in  many  insects  which  are  guided  by 
sight,  such  as  dragon-flies  and  cicadas,  the  antennae  are 
minute,  rudimentary,  and  do  not  have  the  sense  of  smell, 
though  the  cicada  may  be  guided  by  the  sense  of  hearing. 

The  organs  of  smell,  according  to  Hauser,  consist,  in  in- 
sects,— i.e.,  all  Orthoptera,  Pseud oneuroptera  (i.e.,  white 
ants,  Perlae,  Psoci,  dragon-  and  may-flies),  Diptera,  and 
Hymenoptera,  also  in  most  Lepidoptera,  Neuroptera,  and 
Coleoptera, — 

1.  Of  a  thick  nerve  arising  from  the  brain  which  is  sent 
into  the  antennae. 

3.  Of  a  sensitive  apparatus  at  the  end,  consisting  of 
staff-like  cells,  which  are  modified  hypodermis  cells,  with 
which  the  fibres  of  the  nerves  connect. 

3.  Of  a  supporting  and  accessory  apparatus,  consisting  of 
pits,  or  peg-  or  tooth-like  projections  filled  with  a  serous 
fluid,  and  which  may  be  regarded  as  invaginations  and  out- 
growths of  the  epidermis.  These  appear  as  microscopic 
pits  and  teeth,  usually  situated  at  or  near  the  end  of  the 
antennae.  The  number  of  these  olfactory  pits  and  j)rojec- 
tions  is  sometimes  enormous.  In  the  European  cockchafer 
{Melolontha  viilgaris)  39,000  occur  in  the  leaves  of  the  male 
antennae,  and  about  35,000  in  those  of  the  female  (Fig.  20). 
In  Vespa  crabro  each  Joint  of  tlie  antenna  (flagellum)  pos- 
sesses between  1300  and  1400   pits,  nearly  60  teeth,  and 


THE  SENSES  OF  INSECTS. 


27 


about  70  tactile  hairs;  on  the  terminal  joint  there  are 
more  than  200  teeth,  so  that  each  antenna  has  between 
13,000  and  14,000  olfactory  pits  and  about  700  teeth. 

Y\  < — ^    ^i 


Fig.  80.— Organs  ofsmeltinMelolontha.  n,  olfactory  or  antennal  nerve;  sc,  gan- 
glion-cells from  which  a  thread-lilfe  fibre  is  sent  to  each  pit  (p),  ending  in  a 
hair  or  style  (st)\  m,  olfactory  membrane.— After  Kraepelin. 

Similar  pits  occur  in  the  long,  jointed  anal  stylets  of  the 
cockroach,  and  in  those  of  certain  flies  (Chrysopila). 

Plateau,  as  well  as  Will  and  Forel,  deny  that  the  palpi 
have  the  sense  of  taste,  but  maintain  that  they  are  simply 
organs  of  touch;  Forel  appears 
to  have  experimentally  proved 
this  by  cutting  off  the  palpi 
of  wasps  and  ants,  and  feed- 
ing them  with  meal  with  which 
quinine  and  morphine  had 
been  mixed,  which  they  still 
rejected,  though  they  would 
eat  pure,  unadulterated  meal, 
of  Perla  we  have  found  a  sense-pit  (Fig.  21,  c). 

Little  is  positively  known  of  the  organs  of  taste,  but  the 
researches  of  F.  Will  show  that  wasps  and  bees  are  provided 
either  with  microscopic  pits  or  goblet-like  projections  on  the 
base  of  the  ligula  (which  forms  the  end  of  the  under  lip), 
as  well  as  on  the  under  side  of  the  maxillas.     The  gustatory 


Fig.  21. — A,  b,  sense-organs  on  the  ab- 
dominal appendages  of  a  fly  (Chry- 
sopila); c,  a  similar  pit  in  last  joint 
of  palpus  of  Perla. 

Yet  in  the  end  of  the  palpi 


28  ENTOMOLOQT. 

nerve  ends  on  the  surface,  and  is  thus  accessible  to  direct 
chemical  stimulation,  while  the  parts  can  be  washed  with 
the  saliva.  The  supply  of  hooks  and  bristles  on  the  skin 
partly  retains  the  saliva  for  cleansing  purposes,  and  partly 
defends  the  delicate  ending  of  the  nerves.  All  these  pits 
and  goblets  are  situated  where  they  come  in  direct  contact 
with  the  food.  Forel,  basing  his  opinions  on  the  observa- 
tions of  different  anatomists  as  well  as  his  own,  thinks  tliat 
the  organs  of  taste  occur  in  the  proboscis  of  flies;  in  the 
maxillae,  and  in  the  end  of  the  tongue,  of  ants;  and  in  the 
palate  or  epipharynx  of  bees  and  beetles. 

While  most  insects  appear  to  be  deaf,  certain  organs  which 
are  generally  considered  to  be  ears  are  well  developed  in 
the  locust,  and  we  think  that  the  sense  of  hearing  must  be 
present,  not  only  from  the  fact  that  a  loud  alarum  with 
kettles  and  pans  affects  them,  but  because  the  movements 
of  persons  walking  through  the  grass  invariably  disturb 
them.  Besides  this,  they  produce  a  fiddling  or  stridulating 
sound  by  rubbing  their  hind  legs  against  their  folded  wing- 
covers,  and  this  noise  is  a  sexual  sound,  evidently  heard 
and  appreciated  by  individuals  of  the  other  sex.  Any  insect 
which  produces  a  sound  must  be  supposed  to  have  ears  to 
hear  the  sound  produced  by  others  of  its  species. 

The  ears  (or  auditory  sacs)  of  the  locust*  are  situated,  one 
on  each  side,  on  the  basal  joint  of  the  abdomen,  just  be- 
hind the  first  abdominal  spiracle  (Fig.  22).  The  apparatus 
consists  of  a  tense  membrane,  the  tympanum,  surrounded 
by  a  horny  ring  (Fig.  22).  "^On  the  internal  surface  of  this 
membrane  are  two  horny  processes  (o,  n),  to  which  is  attached 

*  Forel,  however  ("  Recueil  Zoologique  Suisse,"  1887),  denies  that 
these  tympanic  organs  are  necessarily  ears,  and  thinks  tliat  all  insects 
are  deaf,  with  no  special  organs  of  hearing,  but  that  sounds  are  heard 
by  their  tactile  organs,  just  as  deaf-mutes  perceive  at  a  distance  the 
rumbling  of  a  carriage.  But  he  appears  to  overlook  the  fact  that 
many  Crustacea,  and  all  shrimps  and  crabs,  as  well  as  many  mol- 
lusks,  have  organs  of  hearing.  The  German  anatomist  Will 
believes  that  insects  hear  only  the  stridulation  of  their  own  species. 
Lubbock  thinks  that  bees  and  ants  are  not  deaf,  but  hear  sounds  so 
shrill  as  to  be  beyond  our  hearing. 


THE  SENSES  OF  INSECTS. 


29 


an  extremely  delicate  vesicle  {bi)  filled  with  a  transparent 
fluid,  and  representing  a  membranons  labyrinth.  This 
vesicle  is  in  connection  with  an  auditory  nerve  {n)  which 


Fig.  33.— Ear  of  a  locust  (Calopteuus  italicus).  seen  from  the  inner  side.  T, 
tympanum;  TR,  its  border;  o,  u.  two  horn-like  processes;  bi,  pear-shaped 
vesicle:  n,  auditory  nerve;  ga,  terminal  ganglion;  st,  stigma;  m,  opening,  and 
ni'  closing,  muscle  of  the  same:  M,  tensor  muscle  of  the  tympanum-mem- 
brane.— After  Graber. 


CM- 


bid.  23.— I,  fore  tibia  of  a  European  grasshopper  (Meconema>,  containing  tin. 
ear:  Ty,  tympanum  or  outer  membrane:  7V1,  Tr2,  trachea.  U,  diagram- 
matic cross-section  through  the  tibia  and  ear  of  the  same:  Ty.  tympanum; 
Ct.  cuticula;  CM,  bypodermis:  A.  the  auditory  organ  connecting  with  the 
tympanum:  B.  supi-a-tj-mpanal  auditory  organ  ;  GZ,  the  ganglion-cell  belong- 
ing to  them;  Hst,  the  auditory  rod  connecting  with  the  ganglion-cells.— After 
rtraber,  from  Judeich  and  Nitsche. 


30 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


arises  from  the  third  thoracic  ganglion,  forms  a  ganglion 
{go)  upon  the  tympanum,  and  terminates  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood  of  the  labyrinth  by  a  collection  of  cuneiform, 
staff-like  bodies,  with  very  finely-pointed  extremities  (primi- 
tiye  nerve-fibres  ?),  which  are  surrounded  by  loosely  aggre- 


FiG.  24.— Musical  apparatus  of  cricket,    n.  a.  tracheal  tube ;  6,  rasp  or  ridge 
bearing  vibratory  flanges;  d,  resonant  surface,  with  ridges. 

gated  ganglionic  globules"  (Siebold's  "  Anatomy  of  the  In- 
vertebrates"). In  the  green  grasshoppers,  katydids,  and 
their  allies,  the  ears  are  situated  on  the  fore  legs  (tibiae), 
where  these  organs  can  be  found  after  a  careful  search  (Fig. 
23). 

Having  ears  to  hear,  locusts,  grasshoppers,  katydids,  and 
crickets  are  also  very  musical.  One  may  sometimes  see  the 
red-legged  locust  standing  on  the  ground  and  rubbing  one 
leg  against  the  folded  wing,  and  a  shrill  chirruping  noise 
may  be  heard.  The  noise  is 
made  by  a  row  of  dull  spines 
on  the  inside  of  the  femur, 
forming  a  rude  file  which 
rasps  the  wing.  Certain 
grasshoppers,  as  the  katy- 
did and  the  crickets  (Figs. 
24,  25),  have  on  the  under 
side  of  the  uppermost  of  the 

fore  AvingS  a  sort  of  file  which   Fio.  25.— Enlarged  view  of  the  vibratory 
1  ,  „  flanges  seen  at  h',  Fig.  24. — This  and 

rubs  over  a  resonant  surface.     Fig.  19  after  n.  b.  Pierce. 

like  a  drum's  head.     The  file  may  be  likened  to  the  bow,  and 


THE  SENSES  OF  INSECTS.  31 

the  drum-like  space  to  the  body  of  the  violin.  Thus,  most 
grasshoppers  are  fiddlers,  and  during  the  summer,  both  by 
day  and  uight,  the  air  resounds  with  the  music  of  these 
primitive  violinists.  This  noise  may  add  to  our  pleasure,  or 
become  tedious  and  disagreeable.  This  makes  little  differ- 
ence, for  insect-music  is  all-important.  It  is  the  cricket's 
love-call;  and  were  crickets,  etc.,  deaf  and  dumb,  we  are 
safe  in  saying  the  breed  would  soon  run  out,  because  they 
would  not  otherwise  readily  mate. 

Insects  also  have  the  sense  of  touch  highly  developed;  its 
seat  is  in  the  numerous  hairs  and  bristles  which  clothe  the 
antennae  and  palpi,  as  well  as  the  legs  and  the  body  itself.* 

The  hairs  of  insects  form  an  interesting  subject  for  micro 
scopic  study,  since  they  vary  so  much  in  shape.  The  simplest 
are  seen  in  the  smaller  caterpillars,  and  the  larger  naked 
kinds,  in  which  the  hairs  are  minute  and  very  slender; 
while  in  the  hairy  species,  as  the  arctians,  they  are  densely 
barbed;  in  certain  caterpillars,  as  those  of  the  maia,  io,  and 
the  native  silk-worm  moths,  the  hairs  are  spine-like,  with 
sharp  spinules,  and  are  poisonous,  having  at  their  base  a 
minute  poison-gland.  Hairy  or  spiny  catei-pillars  are  not 
eaten  by  birds,  or  so  easily  molested  by  ichneumon-flies. 
The  hairs  sometimes  become  flat  and  broad  as  in  the  scales 
of  moths  and  butterflies,  as  well  as  certain  flies  and  beetles. 

*  To  examine  the  heads  of  insects  in  order  to  watch  the  movements 
of  the  appendages  and  moiUh-parts,  we  may  sometimes  follow  with 
advantage  Mr.  E.  T.  Draper's  recommendation  of  using  a  cone  of 
pasted  paper  to  be  made  rather  larger  than  the  specimen,  with  the 
apex  cut  off.  A  vigorous  insect  will  soon  project  its  head  through 
the  aperture.  When  in  this  position  it  should  be  blocked  behind 
with  cotton  wool  slightly  wetted.  The  cone  can  then  be  gummed 
to  a  .slip,  apex  upward.  Insects  held  in  this  way  will  allow  one  to 
observe  the  movements  of  the  antennte,  palpi,  jaws,  etc.,  and  the 
effects  produced  by  excitation  with  saccharine  or  nitrogenous  fluids, 
administered  with  a  sable  pencil.     {Science- Oossijy,  1884,  36.) 


CHAPTER  11. 
GROWTH  AND  METAMORPHOSIS  OF  INSECTS. 

Insects  are  of  distinct  sexes,  and  besides  males  and  fe- 
males the  social  species,  such  as  ants,  wasps,  and  bees,  are 
largely  represented  by  workers,  which  are  undeveloped 
females,  not  being  normally  capable  of  laying  eggs. 

Insects  differ  sexually  in  that  the  female  often  appears  to 
have  one  abdominal  segment  less  (one  disappearing  during 
the  semi-pupa  state,  when  the  ovipositor  is  formed).  They 
are  also  larger  (except  in  the  stag-beetles,  some  dragon-flies, 
and  certain  bees),  fuller,  and  duller-colored  than  the  males; 
while  the  latter  often  differ  in  sculpture  and  ornamenta- 
tion and  are  more  active  than  the  females.  Certain  female 
moths  are  wingless,*  the  organs  of  locomotion  as  well  as  of 
smell  (antennse)  and  sight  being  better  developed  in  the 
male  than  in  the  female.  The  females  of  some  water-beetles 
(Dytiscus)  have  deeply-grooved  elytra,  or,  as  in  Acilius 
sulrafns,  they  are  thickly  set  with  hairs. 

Egg-producing  Organs. — AYith  some  notable  exceptions 
(i.e.,  cases  of  parthenogenesis),  all  insects  develop  from  eggs, 
which  are  formed  in  delicate  tubes  situated  in  the  abdomen, 
as  in  Fig,  4,  ov.  In  the  locust  the  ovaries  consist  of  two 
sets  of  about  twenty  long  tubes,  within  which  the  eggs  may 

*  The  only  partial  exception  to  the  rule  that  tlie  females  are  wing- 
less while  tlie  males  are  winged  is  the  male  of  two  chalcids  (West 
wood's  Class.  Insects,  ii.  160).  This  fact  was  quoted  by  Darwin 
(Descent  of  IVIan.  i.  264).  Darwin  seems  not  to  have  been  aware  that 
Newport  tigured  these  in.sects  (Trans.  Linn.  Soe.,  xxi.,  Tab.  VIII.  p. 
4)  as  Anthophorabia  fasctata  Newport  and  A.  retusa  Newport.  The 
males  also  are  without  compound  eyes,  only  a  simple  eye  being 
present  in  place  of  each  compound  one  (Fig.  36). 


GROWTH  AND  METAMORPHOSIS  OF  INSECTS.     33 

be  found  in  various  stages  of  development.     The  eggs  pass 
in  two  main  tubes  which  unite  to  form  the  single  oviduct 
{pv.t)  which  lies  on  the  floor  of    the  abdomen.      Above 
A  B 


Fig.  26.—Anthophorabia  retusa.   A,  male;  B,  female.— After  Newport. 

the  opening  of  the  oviduct  is  the  sebific  gland  and  its  duct. 
This  gland  secretes  a  copious  supply  of  a  sticky  fluid,  which 
is,  as  in  many  other  insects,  poured  out  as  the  eggs  pass  out 


Fig.  27.— Egg-tube  of  a  saw-fly  (Athalia).  a,  b,  c,  egg-tubes;  e,  oviduct;/,  sper- 
matheca  or  reservoir  for  the  seminal  fluid:  </.  poison-sac,  and  its  secretory- 
vessels  (A);  10,  the  last  nerve-centre  of  tlie  abdomen.— From  Newport. 

of  the  oviduct,  thus  surrounding  them  with  a  tough  coat 
(compare  Fig.  37). 


34 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


The  external  parts  consist  of  the  ovipositor  (Fig.  1,  B), 
which  is  formed  of  two  pairs  of  spines  {rhahdites)  adapted 
for  boring  into  the  earth;  and  of  the  egg-guide  (Fig.  4,  eg), 
a  trianguhir  flap  guarding  the  under  side  of  the  opening  of 
the  oviduct. 

The  eggs  are  fertilized  while  in  the  oviduct  during  pair- 
ing.    The  sperm-cells  are  secreted  in  little  glands  in  the 

...-dr 


Fig.    29.— <,    testis;    v,   vas 
Fig.  28.— Male  glands  of  a  Bark-beetle,    si,  vas      deferens  ;g,  seminal  vesicle 
deferens;  ho,  testis;   bl,  sperm-sac;  ag,  ductus      of     Acheta    campestris. — 
ejaculatorius.— From  Graber.  From  Gegenbaur. 

male  called  testes,  which  form  a  single  mass  of  tubular 
glands,  resting  in  the  upper  side  of  the  third,  fourth,  and 
fifth  segments  of  the  hind  body.  Figs.  28  and  29  represent 
these  structures  in  other  insects. 

The  Egg. — In  shape  the  eggs  of  insects  are  usually  either 
more  or  less  spherical  or  oval.  The  shell  which  envelops 
them  is  called  the  chorion.  It  is  dense  and  brittle,  and 
often  covered  by  a  delicate  mosaic-work  of  more  or  less 
regular  facets.  In  those  of  many  moths  the  surface  is  finely 
granulated,  while  in  those  of  most  butterflies  the  surface  is 
beautifully  ornamented  with  ribs  and  furrows. 

In  some  eggs  there  are  radiating  appendages  at  one  end, 
as  in  those  of  Nepa  (Fig.  30,  o),  which  surround  the  micro- 
pyle;  this  being  a  microscopic  opening  through  which  a 
spermatic  particle  enters  to  fertilize  the  egg. 

The  mosquito  lays  its  slender  cylindrical  eggs  glued 
together  in  a  boat-shaped  mass,  which  floats  on  the  surface 
of  pools  or  cisterns;  the  Copris  beetle,  or  "tumble-bug," 


GROWTH  AND  METAMORPHOSIS  OF  INSECTS.      35 


places  its  egg  in  the  centre  of  a  ball  of  clung,  which  it  rolls 
away  to  a  secure  place;  the  flesh-fly  oviposits  on  fresh  or 

o  6  c  d  e  f  g  h        i  k         I 


m  n  o  p  q  r  s 

Fig.  30.— Eggs  of  different  insects,  a,  Tortrix;  6,  Liparis;  c,  a  noctuid,  Trachea ; 
d,  usual  shape  of  those  of  bark-boi-er,  etc.;  e,  Melolontha;  /,  Chironomus:  g, 
Lyda;  /i,  Musca;  i,  honey-bee;  A%  Rhodites  rosas;  /,  Chrysopa;  ni,  Drosophila; 
n,  Pentatoma;  o,  Nepa;  p,  Pieris  cratsegi ;  q,  bed-bug;  r,  louse,  fastened  to  a 
hair;  s,  Hypoderma  actaeon,  bot-fly.— From  Judeich  and  Nitsche. 

putrid  meat,  and  moths  and  butterflies  lay  their  eggs  on 
the  leaves  or  stems  of  the  food-plant,  where  the  caterpillar, 
upon  its  exit  from  the  egg,  shall  readily  find  an  ample 
supply  of  food. 

No  collection  of  insects  is  complete  without  specimens  of 
the  eggs  neatly  gummed  on  a  card  and  pinned  next  to  the 
insect. 

Growth  of  the   Insect  within  the  Egg. — The  germ  or 


Fig.  31.— Section  of  Sphinx 
embryo,  the  germ  im- 
mersed in  the  yolk,  s, 
serous  membrane ;  am, 
amnion;  h,  outer,  m,  in- 
ner, germ-layer. 


Fig.  33.— Embryo  of  Sphinx  much  more  advanced, 
/i,  heart;  g,  ganglion;  i,  intestine;  ?)i,  rudimen- 
tary nmscular  bands  running  to  the  heart;  s, 
stigma  and  beginning  of  a  trachea  (0;  d,  a 
gland.— This  and  Figs.  33  and  34  after  Kowalevsky 


young  insect  before  hatching  is  called  the  embryo,  and  the 
study  of  the  gi-owth  or  development  of  the  embryo  is  called 
Embryology. 


36 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


There  is  a  remarkable  uniformity  in  the  mode  of  develop- 
ment of  the  winged  insects.  In  general,  after  fertilization 
of  the  Qgg,  a  few  cells  appear  at  one  end  of  the  egg;  these 
multiply,  forming  a  single  layer  around  the  egg,  this  layer 
constituting  the  blastoderm.  This  layer  thickens  on  one 
side  of  the  egg,  forming  a  whitish  patch  called  the  jn'imi- 
tive  streak  or  hand.  The  blastoderm  moults,  sloughing  off 
an  outer  layer  of  cells,  a  new  layer  forming  beneath;  the 


u 


Fig.  33.— Primitive  band  or 
germ  of  a  Spliinx  moth, 
with  the  segments  indi- 
cated, and  their  rudiment- 
ary appendages,  c,  upper 
lip;  at,  antennae;  md,  man- 
dibles; mix,  mx,  first  and 
second  maxillae;  I,  I',  I", 
legs;  al,  abdominal  legs. 


Fig.  34.— Embryo  of  a  Water-beetle  {Hydro- 
philus).  E,  egg;  K,  head;  ol,  upper  lip;  m, 
mouth;  an,  antennae;  fci,  mandibles;  fcj,  fcj, 
maxillae;  B.  thorax;  b^,  b^,  63,  legs;  /ij-/i,o, 
ten  pairs  of  rudimentary  abdominal  legs,  of 
which  all  except  fc,  disappear  before  the  in- 
sect hatches;  o,  anus. — After  Kowalevsky. 


skin  thus  thrown  off  is  called  the  serons  membrane;  the 
second  germ-layer  (ectoderm)  then  arises,  and  a  second 
membrane  (called  amnion,  but  not  homologous  with  that  of 
vertebrates)  peels  off  from  the  primitive  band  just  as  the 
appendages  are  budding  out,  so  that  the  body  and  appen- 
dages of  the  embryo  insect  are  encased  in  the  amnion  as  the 
hand  and  fingers  are  encased  by  a  glove.     As  seen  in  the 


GROWTH  AND  METAMORPHOSIS  OF  INSECTS.     37 


accompanyiijg  Figs.  31-36.  the  a])})eudages  bud  out  from 
the  under  side  of  the  primitive  baud,  aud  antenna?,  jaws, 
legs,  ovipositor  (or  sting),  and  the  abdominal  feet  of  cater- 
pillars are  at  first  all  alike.  Soon  the  appendages  begin  to 
assume  the  form  seen  in  the   larva,  and   just  before  the 


Fig.  35.  —  Profile  view  of  embryo 
Honey-bee,  lettering  as  in  Fig  34. 
BM,  nervous  cord;  uG,  brain;  D, 
digestive  canal;  sch,  the  oesophagus; 
St,  stigmatal  openings  of  the  tra- 
cheal system ;  R,  heart.— After  Bliit- 
schli. 


Fig.  36.— Embryo  of  the  Louse,  am, 
serous  membrane;  db.  amnion;  as, 
antennae;  vk,  forehead.— After  Mel- 
nikow. 


insect  hatches  the  last  steps  in  the  elaboration  of  the  larval 
form  are  taken. 

As  to  the  development  of  the  internal  organs,  the  nervous 
system  first  originates;  the  alimentary  canal  is  next  formed; 
and  at  about  this  time  the  stigmata  and  air-tubes  arise  as 


38  ENTOMOLOGY. 

invaginations  of  the  outer  germ -layer.  The  development  of 
the  salivary  glands  precedes  that  of  the  urinary  tubes;  which, 
with  the  genital  glands,  are  originally  offshoots  of  the 
primitive  digestive  tract.     Finally  the  heart  is  formed. 

When  the  insect  hatches,  it  either  cuts  its  way  through 
the  egg-shell  by  a  temporary  egg-cutter,  as  in  the  flea;  or 
the  expansion  of  the  head  and  thorax  and  the  convulsive 
movements  of  the  body,  as  in  the  grasshopper,  burst  the 
shell  asunder.  The  serous  membrane  is  left  in  the  shell, 
but  in  the  case  of  grasshoppers  the  larva  on  hatching  is 
still  enveloped  in  the  amnion.  This  is  soon  cast  as  a  thin 
pellicle. 

Metamorphosis  of  Insects — The  Larva. — The  life  of  the 
insect  may  be  divided  into  four  stages,  represented  by  the 
egg,  the  larva,  the  pupa,  and  the  imago  or  adult.  The 
change  from  the  Qgg  to  the  adult  is  called  a  metamorphosis. 
.The  larva  (Latin  larva,  a  mask)  was  so  called  because  it 
was  thought  to  mask  the  form  of  the  perfect  insect.  The 
larva  of  a  moth  or  butterfly  is  called  a  caterpillar;  that  of  a 
beetle,  a  grub;  and  that  of  a  fly,  a  maggot.  The  larvae  of 
other  groups  have  no  distinctive  common  names. 

The  principal  change  from  the  larval  to  the  adult  locust 
or  grasshopper  is  the  acquisition  of  wings.  In  such  insects, 
then,  as  the  Ortlioptera  and  He^niptera,  in  which  the  adults 
differ  from  the  newly  hatched  larva  mainly  in  the  possession 
of  wings,  metamorphosis  is  said  to  be  inconiplete.  Its 
development  is  direct.  In  the  beetle,  fly,  butterfly,  or  bee, 
the  metamorphosis  is  complete  ;  the  caterpillar,  for  example, 
is  a  biting  insect,  is  voracious,  and  leads  a  different  life 
from  the  quiescent,  sleeping  jmpa,  or  chrysalis,  which  takes 
no  food;  on  the  other  hand,  the  imago,  or  butterfly,  has 
mandibles,  which  are  rudimentary  and  incapable  of  biting, 
while  the  maxilla,  or  "tongue,"  which  was  rudimentary  in 
the  caterpillar,  becomes  now  greatly  developed;  and  the  but- 
terfly takes  liquid  food  and  but  little  of  it, while  its  surround- 
ings and  mode  of  life  are  entirely  changed  with  its  acquisi- 
tion of  wings.     Thus  the  butterfly  leads  three   different 


GROWTH  AND  METAMORPHOSIS  OF  INSECTS.     39 

lives,  differing  greatly  in  structure,  externally  and  internally, 
at  these  three  periods,  and  with  a  different  environment. 

Most  caterpillars  moult  four  or  five  times;*  the  outer  layer 
of  the  skin  being  cast  off  at  each  moult.  The  skin  opens 
on  the  back  behind  the  head,  the  caterpillar  drawing  itself 
out  of  the  rent.  In  the  change  from  the  caterpillar  to  the 
chrysalis,  there  are  remarkable  transformations  in  the  mus- 
cles, the  nervous,  digestive,  and  circulatory  system,  induc- 
ing a  change  of  form,  external  and  internal,  characterizing 
the  different  stages  in  the  metamorphosis. 

While  the  changes  in  form  are  comparatively  sudden  in 
flies  and  butterflies,  the  steps  that  lead  to  them  are  gradual. 
How  gradual  they  are  may  be  seen  by  a  study  of  the  meta- 
morphosis of  a  bee.  In  the  nest  of  the  humble-  or  honey- 
bee, the  young  may  be  found  in  all  stages,  from  the  egg  to 
the  pupa,  gayly  colored  and  ready  to  emerge  from  its  cell. 
It  is  difficult  to  indicate  Avhen  the  chrysalis  stage  begins 
and  the  larva  stage  ends,  yet  the  metamorphosis  is  more 
complete — that  is,  the  adult  bee  is  more  unlike  the  larva — 
than  in  any  other  insect. 

The  better  way  to  understand  how  an  insect  transforms 
is  to  rear  a  moth  or  butterfly,  a  fly,  and  a  bee  or  saw-fly 
from  the  larva,  closely  observing  each  change.  By  thus 
observing  the  transformations  of  moths,  flies,  and  beetles, 
the  popular  opinion  that  the  smaller  flies  and  moths  are  the 
young  of  the  larger  ones  will  be  seen  to  be  an  error;  all 
winged  insects  being  adults,  and  fully  mature. 

*  The  caterpillars  of  most  North  American  butterflies  moult  four 
times,  but  in  case  of  hibernation  five  times,  three  times  being  a  very 
rare  exception  {Psyche,  iii.  161).  Mr.  W.  Buckler  says  that  the 
number  of  moults  varies  in  different  species.  "I  have  myself  made 
sure  that  six  is  the  number  for  some  and  nine  for  others,  as  in  the 
case  of  Nola  centonalis"  {En(.  Month.  Mag.,  Jul}',  1880).  Mr.  Edwards 
adds  that  in  two  instances  Callosamia  promethed  moulted  but  three 
times,  and  he  thinks  that  this  species  varies  in  the  number  of  moults 
with  the  latitude  or  locality.  Telea  polyphemus  moults  four  times, 
as  does  Attacus  atlas  bred  in  England  (Pysche,  iii.  171-174).  Hellins 
records  a  variable  number  of  moults  (three  to  live)  in  larvse  of  Orgyia 
antiqua  from  the  same  batch  of  eggs  {Ent.  Month.  Mag.,  Sept.,  1881, 
p.  88) 


40  ENTOMOLOGY. 

The  Pupa. — A  few  days  (usually  from  one  to  three)  before 
assumiug  the  pupa  or  chrysalis  state,  the  caterpillar  becomes 
restless,  stops  eating,  deserts  its  food,  wanders  about,  and 
if  it  is  a  spinner,  such  as  the  silk-worm  or  certain  other 
moths,  spins  a  silken  cocoon;  or  if  a  borer,  makes  one  of 
earth  or  chips,  and  then  prepares  for  the  change  to  the 
pupa  state. 

Cocoons  are  usually  oval,  and  either  compact  and  thick, 
or  loose  and  open  like  network.  In  the  course  of  one 
summer  the  beginner  can  collect  a  large  number,  and 
realize  how  varied  in  form  and  structure  they  are.  They 
are  usually  spun  out  of  a  silken  thread.  The  silky  material 
is  formed  in  the  silk  glands,  two  long  tubes  which  lie  on 
the  under  side  of  the  body  of  the  caterpillar  and  open  into 
the  under  lip  by  a  common  duct;  the  little  projection  or 
papilla  out  of  which  the  silk  passes  is  called  the  spinneret. 
The  silk  is  fluid  before  it  is  forced  out,  but  becomes  thread- 
like on  exposure  to  the  air. 

Before  changing,  the  body  of  the  caterpillar  becomes 
shorter  and  thicker,  and  remains  so  for  one  or  several  days; 
that  of  the  saw-fly  remains  in  this  state  through  the  winter. 
During  this  period,  called  the  semipupal  stage,  the  pupa 
develops,  its  skin  separating  from  that  of  the  larva. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  skin  is  composed  of 

two  layers;  the  under  one 
formed  of  cells  and  called  the 
hypodermis  (Fig.  37),  which 
secretes  the  hard,  chitinous, 
structureless  outer  layer  or 
crust.  The  hypodermis  of 
the  growing  pupa  tends  more 
and  more  to  assume  the  shape 
^"utieiii^cTndb^lo^dV^rM  The  of  the  pupa,  and  the  muscles 
Cwlthuie'c^it^iuaTHzlTe'rTheand     other      Organs     within 

poison-glands    at   the    base    of    the  pTioTicrp      flipir      sjVinnp        nntil 
bristles   of   some    insects    resemble  CnangC      tlieil       snape,       Unril 

these.-From  judeich  and  Nitsche.     finally  the  old  larval  skiu  rup- 
tures along  the  back,  and  the  pupa  slips  out  of  the  rent. 


PARTHENOOENEStS.  41 

The  pupa?  of  different  insects  vary  greatly  in  form.  lu 
the  insects  with  an  incomplete  metamorphosis  the  pupa 
only  differs  from  the  larva  in  having  pad-like  rudimentary 
wings.  In  such  insects  development  is  direct,  and  properly 
speaking  they  pass  through  no  true  larval  or  pupal  stages. 
Indeed,  some  authors  with  good  reason  apply  the  term 
nymph  to  the  early  stages  of  Orthoptera,  white  ants,  may- 
flies, dragon-flies,  etc. ;  this  term  embracing  what  is  usually 
called  the  larval  and  pupal  states  of  those  insects,  as  during 
these  periods  they  are  active  and  take  food. 

The  Imag^o. — This  is  the  final  or  adult  state,  when  the 
wings  are  developed  and  the  insect  is  able  to  fly  about 
and  lay  its  eggs.  As  soon  as  insects,  such  as  moths  or 
butterflies,  wasps  or  bees,  have  completed  their  transforma- 
tions they  pair,  and  the  females  seek  a  suitable  place  to 
deposit  their  eggs.  After  this  act  is  accomplished,  the 
adults  usually  soon  die.  This  period  of  reproduction  may 
occur  at  any  time  during  the  summer,  but,  taking  into 
account  the  great  mass  of  species,  it  in  general  occurs  to- 
ward the  end  of  summer,  and  early  in  the  autumn;  hence 
during  the  winter  the  species  in  most  cases  is  represented 
by  the  egg  alone.  Earely  does  the  adult  insect  hibernate; 
though  one  will  find  a  few  ichneumons,  beetles,  and  bugs 
under  leaves  and  the  bark  of  trees;  but  in  many  species, 
especially  moths,  the  pupa  hibernates  to  disclose  the  imago 
in  the  spring  or  early  summer.  Larvae  seldom  live  through 
the  winter,  althougli  there  are  some  well-knoAvn  exceptions 
to  this  law. 

When  insects  are  prevented  from  mating,  they  will  live 
much  longer  than  would  be  otherwise  the  case.  Eeaumur 
kept  a  virgin  butterfly  for  two  years  in  his  hot-house.  The 
pupal  state  of  moths  and  butterflies  may  be  greatly  pro- 
longed by  keeping  the  chrysalids  on  ice. 

Parthenogenesis. — Besides  the  normal  mode  of  develop- 
ment, certain  insects,  as  the  plant-louse  (ApJus),  the  bark- 
louse  {Coccus),  the  honey-bee,  the  Polistes  wasp,  the  currant 
saw-fly  {Nematus),   the  gall-flies,  and  a  few  others,   pro- 


42  ENTOMOLOGY. 

duce  young  from  unfertilized  eggs.  Certain  moths,  as  the 
silk-worm  moth  {Bo)nb!/.r  man')  and  others,  have  been 
known  to  lay  unfertilized  eggs  from  which  caterpillars  have 
hatched. 

The  most  surprising  case  is  that  of  the  larva  of  a  dipterous 
gall-fly  (Miastor),  which  brings  forth  numbers  of  young 
maggots  like  itself,  the  eggs  developing  in  the  ovaries  of 
this  precocious  maggot.  The  pupa  of  another  fly  (Chirono- 
mus)  lays  eggs  from  which  the  maggots  hatch. 

This  anomalous  mode  of  reproduction  is  called  partheno- 
genesis, and  fundamentally  is  only  a  modification  of  the 
mode  of  producing  young  by  budding  which  is  universal  in 
plants,  and  is  not  unusual  among  the  lower  branches  of 
the  animal  kingdom.  The  object  or  design  in  nature,  at 
least  in  the  case  of  the  plant-lice  and  bark-lice,  as  well  as 
the  gall-flies,  is  the  production  of  large  numbers  of  indi- 
viduals by  which  the  perpetuity  of  the  species  is  maintained. 

Broods  or  Generations  of  Insects. — Most  insects  live  one 
year;  hatching  from  the  egg  early  in  the  summer,  they 
pass  through  the  larval  state,  and  early  in  the  autumn  be- 
come pupse,  to  appear  as  imagines  for  a  few  days  or  weeks 
in  the  succeeding  summer.  Many  moths  and  butterflies, 
however,  are  double-brooded,  and  some  have  even  three 
broods.  Papilio  ajax  has  in  West  Virginia  four  and 
sometimes  five  generations  a  year.  There  are  other  insects, 
such  as  certain  kinds  of  flies,  bugs,  beetles,  etc.,  which 
keep  up  a  constant  and  irregular  succession  of  broods.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  seventeen-year  Cicada  has  a  generation 
only  once  in  seventeen  years. 

Cold  retards  the  development  of  insects,  while  warmth 
stimulates  it;  and  insects  which  are  as  a  rule  single-brooded 
may  be  artificially  forced  into  having  a  second  brood  dur- 
ing the  same  season. 

Contagious  Diseases  of  Insects  due  to  Animal  and  Vege- 
table Germs,* — While  many  insects,  especially  the  white 

*  For  the  latest  resume  of  this  subject  see  S.  A.  Forbes's  article 
'*  On  the  Present  State  of  our  Knowledge  concerning  Contagious 


FUNGUS-DISEASES  OF  INSECTS.  43 

ants  and  wood-eating  kinds,  are  infested  by  hosts  of  ap- 
parently harmless  microscopic  parasites,  both  animal  and 
vegetable,  there  are  certain  species  which  give  rise  to  grave 
contagious  diseases.  Though  most  of  these  minute  para- 
sites are  vegetable,  the  common  silk- worm  is  in  Europe  in- 
fested by  what  Balbiani  regards  as  an  animal.  It  is  a  very 
minute  parasitic  Amoeba-like  form  (called  Microsporldium 
bombijcis),  belonging,  according  to  Balbiani,  to  a  group 
called  Sporozoa,  and  allied  to  the  psorosperms  occurring  in 
fishes,  etc.,  and  to  the  Gregarinas.  The  disease  produced 
by  this  organism  is  called  j^ebrine,  its  symptoms  being  the 
appearance  of  black  specks  on  the  skin  and  internal  organs, 
while  the  blood  is  filled  with  the  spores  of  the  parasite. 
This  disease,  however,  is  in  this  country  practically  un- 
known, and  Forbes  believes  that  it  probably  cannot  be 
artificially  cultivated  or  propagated  in  insects  related  to  the 
silk-worm. 

Of  the  vegetable  disease-germs,  the  most  simple  and 
minute  are  the  Bactei'ia,  Bacilli,  and  Micrococci,  the  dis- 
eases they  produce  being  called  '-'  bacterial."  The  most 
destructive  of  these  to  the  siliv-worm  is  variously  called 
flacherie,    maladie    des  ^^^  a  ^o 

morts-blancs,    maladie       ^o  *^   *^oo''°'''*oa/*      o 

des    morts- fiats.      The  '^  %°^°^"^  o'"'o  ^^"^^ 

germ    of    this    disease,        ^  °*^«o  *'°^**°°6oo  \       o" 
which  is  called  Micro-  *        '^^ 

coccus  bombijcis  by  Cohn        ^'«-  38--Flachene  germs.-After  Coho. 

(Fig.  38),  is,  like  its  allies,  among  the  smallest  organisms 
known;  it  is  a  microscopic,  oval  mass  of  protoplasm,  and 
multiplies  very  rapidly  by  self-division,  the  new  individuals 
often  forming  chains.  In  this  way  a  few  germs  introduced 
into  an  insect  will  multiply  with  immense  rapidity,  finally 
disorganizing  the  blood  and  tissues,  and  causing  rapid  decay 

Insect  Diseases"  {Psyche,  v.,  Jan.,  Feb.,  1888,  1).  See  also  Judeich 
and  Nitsche's  "Lehrbuch  des  Mitteleuropaischen  Forstinsekteu- 
kunde;"  the  works  of^  Quatrefages  and  Pasteur  on  the  silk-worm 
disease;  and  BalbianiV "  Le9ons  sur  ies  Sporozoaires,"  Paris,  1884. 


44  ENTOMOLOGY. 

and  death.  It  is  very  contagious,  being  transmitted  to 
liealthy  larvae  by  the  infection  of  their  food  either  with 
fresh  excrement  or  with  the  dust  of  infected  silk-worm 
nurseries  of  the  previous  year.  Forbes  has  studied  the 
flacherie  of  the  caterpillars  of  Pieris  rapes,  and  of  Datana 
minisli'a,  and  has  shown  that  the  spontaneous  disease  due 
to  a  species  of  micrococcus  ''maybe  unquestionably  con- 
veyed to  other  lepidopterous  species,  and  even  to  the  white 
grubs;"  he  has  also  seen  wide-spread  epidemics  of  flacherie 
in  the  caterpillars  of  Pieris  rapcB,  of  Pyrameis  cardni, 
and  of  Nejyhelodes  violans,  and  has  met  with  it  here  and 
there  in  numbers  of  other  caterpillars  and  hymenopterous 
larvae,  as  well  as  the  chinch-bug;  while  from  the  researches 
of  Cheshire  and  Cheyne  "  foul-brood  "  in  bees  is  now  known 
to  be  produced  by  Bacillus  alvei. 

The  disease  known  as  "muscardine,"  often  causing  wide- 
spread destruction  to  both  larval  and  adult  insects,  is 
caused  by  fungi,  or  moulds,  which  are  often  visible  to  the 
naked  eye.  They  are  species  of  Botrytis,  Isaria,  Cordyceps, 
Empusa,  Entomophthora,  etc.  The  spores  of  these  moulds 
enter  the  bodies  of  their  hosts  through  the  spiracles,  being 
inhaled,  not  penetrating  through  the  mouth;  their  spores 
also  germinate  on  the  surface  of  the  body,  sending  slender 
threads  through  the  skin  into  the  body;  these  threads 
separate  into  small  single  cells  (cylindrical  ''conidia"), 
which,  growing  and  dividing  again  and  again,  derive  their 
nourishment  from  the  blood  and  tissues,  the  victim  dying 
a  slow  death,  after  which  the  body  becomes  filled  with  the 
mycelial  threads,  which  finally,  as  in  certain  species  of  Isaria 
and  Corclycej)s,  send  up  long  filaments,  more  or  less  club- 
shaped,  when  they  are  called  "  caterpillar  fungi."  A  large 
proportion  of  the  flies  and  other  insects  in  different  stages 
found  in  autumn  dead  and  stiff  on  fences,  weeds,  trees, 
and  within  houses,  are  victims  of  Entomophthorae. 

De  Bary  says:  Should  we  carefully  look  in  the  leaves 
and  moss  on  the  ground  in  forests  in  the  wet  portions  of 
tlie  year,  we  should  be  astonished  at  the  number  of  insects 


DESTRUCTION  OF  INSECTS  BY  FUNGI. 


45 


concealed  in  them  which  are  infested  by  vegetable  parasites. 
The  commonest  example  is  tho  mould  {Empusa  7misccB, 


Fig.  S9.~Empusa  muscae  Cohn.  A,  a  dead  fly,  surrounded  by  spores;  B, 
spores;  C.  germinating  spores  forming  secondary  spores;  D.  empusa  cells 
growing  in  the  fat-body  of  a  fly;  at  E  forming  tubes;  F,  partly  diagrammatic 
representation  of  the  frnctiflcation ;  x.  the  skin  of  the  fly;  y,  its  hairs;  at  a  the 
spores  bearing  hypha-ends  boring  through  the  skin;  b.  the  hypha-tubes  re- 
maining in  the  body ;  c.  one  not  yet  penetrating  the  skin ;  d,  spores  thrown  oflE 
from  the  body,  and  adhering  to  the  hairs.— After  Brefeld,  from  Judeich  and 
Nitsche. 

Cohn,  Fig.  39),  which  destroys  the  common  house-fly  at 
the  beginning  of  autumn. 

The  Destruction  of  Insect  Pests  by  means  of  Insect  Fungi. 
— When  insects  so  multi2)ly  and  abound  in  great  numbers 
as  to  become  overcrowded,  epidemics  are  liable  to  arise  and 
carry  them  off  in  great  numbers.     These  insect  plagues  are 


46 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


apparently  due  in  some  cases  to  bacteria,  in  others  to  the 
Jarger  fungi.  Forbes  states  that  epidemics  due  to  the 
latter  have  been  noticed  among  grasshoppers  ((Edi]:a^_ 
and  Pezotettix);  among  various  noctuid  larvae — especially 
Agrotis  segetum    in   Europe,    and   some     American   cut- 


FiG.  40.— Entomophthora  radicans  Brefeld.  A,  caterpillar  of  Pier  is  brassicce 
killed  by  it;  o,  the  hyphae  growing  out  from  it;  B,  the  same  at  a  later  stage; 
c,  cross-section  through  B— all  the  soft  parts  of  the  caterpillar  are  replaced  by 
mycelium  threads;  A  fruit-hyph£e;  c,  the  spores;  £,  single  spores ;  &',  apiece 
of  the  skin,  with  spores,  a,  germinating  and  growing  out  at  c;  H,  isolated  my- 
celium branches  free-swimming  in  the  caterpillar's  blood;  J,  branched  my- 
celial thread;  K,  i-esting-spores.  bearing  mycelial  threads,  a,  filled  with  proto- 
plasm; at  n' empty;  at  b  beginning  to  develop;  6',  ripe  resting-spores;  L, 
ripe  resting-spores  with  a  thick  skin  and  fat-drops  within.— After  Brefeld, 
from  Judeich  and  Nitsche. 

worms;  among  the  two  European  cabbage-worms  {Pieris 
rapce  apd  P.  hrassicce);  among  various  flies,  the  common 
house-fly,  blow-flies,  Syrphids,  Culex,  and  even  larval 
Chironomus;  and,  finally,  among  Coccidae  and  Aphides 
{A.  comi  and  A.  rumicis).     According  to  Dr.  Bail,  in  the 


DESTBUCTION  OF  INSECTS  BY  FUNGI.  47 

forests  of  Pomerauia  and  Posen  the  caterpillars  have  been 
killed  by  Einpum  auIiccB  in  such  quantities  as  to  have 
saved  the  trees  from  total  destruction.  These  Entomoph- 
thora  forms  are  difficult  to  cultivate  artificially,  but  in  1881 
Brefeld  cultivated  them  in  sterilized  veal  soup,  and  pre- 
viously he  experimented  with  the  conidia  of  Entomo'plitliova 
radicans  (Fig.  40),  applying  them  to  120  cabbage  cater- 
pillars, with  the  result  that  81  speedily  died  of  the  fungus 
disease  resulting.  But  the  most  hopeful  results,  Forbes 
thinks,  from  the  artificial  cultivation  of  vegetable  insecti- 
cides will  attend  the  use  of  the  muscardine  fungi  (Botrytis, 
Isaria,  and  Cordyceps),  since  their  spores  and  conidia  ^'have 
germinated  freely  again  and  again  in  sweetened  water,  in 
sterilized  beer-mash,  in  solutions  of  gelatine  and  of  gum, 
and  may  even  grow  to  some  extent  in  pure  water.  In 
these  the  Botrytis  stage  arises,  and  may  form  its  spherical 
conidia  in  vast  abundance;  and  these  have  been  used  with 
perfect  success  for  the  infection  of  healthy  insects  in  great 
variety." 

The  question  has  been  asked:  Cannot  we  propagate  the- 
bacterial  insect-diseases  and  utilize  them  as  destructive 
agents  against  insect-pests?  Metschnikoif  has.  suggested 
the  feasibility  of  the  cultivation  of  insect-bacteria,  and  the 
application  of  the  cultivated  fungus  in  quantity  to  places 
infested  by  these  insects;  and  several  years  previously  the 
famous  experimenter,  Pasteur,  recommended  to  the  French 
Phylloxera  Commission  to  find  a  means  of  destroying  the 
Phylloxera  by  inoculation  with  a  microscopic  fungus. 
Balbiani  finds  that  certain  Bacilli  when  inoculated  in  the 
blood  of  other  insects  kill  them.  Death  follows  in  from 
twelve  to  forty-eight  hours,  according  to  external  tempera- 
ture, the  number  and  origin  of  spores,  and  the  size,  age, 
and  susceptibility  of  the  subject.  They  die  with  all  of  tha 
symptoms  which  characterize  /7(/r//^;v>  in  silk-woi-ms. 

The  practical  difficulty  in  experiments  in  this  direction 
appears  to  be  that,  though  the  air  is  more  or  less  filled  with 
floating  disease-germs,  insects  like  other  animals,  and  man 


48  ENTOMOLOGY. 

himself  when  healthy  and  living  under  favorable  conditions, 
resist  their  attacks.  Even  if  one  or  a  few  individuals  were 
inoculated,  the  disease  might  not  spread.  When,  however, 
insects  are  superabundant  and  crowded,  and  the  conditions 
favorable  to  any  disease  arise,  the  timely  inoculation  of  ever 
a  few  individuals  might  i-esult  in  the  destruction  of  im- 
mense numbers  of  insect-pests.  Future  experiments  in 
this  direction  may  give  a  new  phase  to  economic  entomol- 
ogy- 
Unusual  Increase  in  the  Number  of  Insects. — It  is  fre- 
quently noticed  that  certain  insects  abound  in  profusion 
which  are  ordinarily  rare  or  not  common.  This  is  due,  as 
we  shall  see  farther  on,  either  to  favorable  weather  or  to 
the  absence  of  their  parasites.  Thus  canker-worms,  the 
Hessian  fly,  the  chinch-bug,  the  cotton-worm,  as  well  as 
the  Rocky  Mountain  and  other  locusts,  may  in  certain 
years  become  vastly  more  numerous,  and  consequently 
more  destructive,  than  in  others.  If  all  the  eggs  laid  by 
insects  came  to  maturity,  the  earth  would  be  overwhelmed 
with  them,  and  every  green  thing  would  be  devoured.  In 
what  a  ratio  insects  might  increase,  were  it  not  for  these 
natural  checks,  may  be  seen  by  the  following  statements. 

Tomicus  typograplius  in  1874,  in  the  Bohemian  forests, 
had  three  broods.  Judeich  assumes  that  in  the  middle  of 
April  the  female  laid  in  its  maternal  gallery  90  eggs;  and 
he  therefore  reckons  that  early  in  June  at  least  30  in- 
dividuals became  capable  of  reproduction.  Each  of  these 
30  females  again  lays  in  the  maternal  gallery  90  eggs,  pro- 
ducing also  in  all  2700  individuals;  and  by  the  beginning 
of  August  of  the  third  brood  again,  only  a  third  part  of 
them  being  females,  these  would  gnaw  900  maternal  gal- 
leries and  lay  in  them  8100  eggs.  Having  reached  this 
number  again,  the  next  spring  a  third  would  be  ready  for 
oviposition,  so  that  there  would  be  of  the  first  brood  in 
April  already  27,000  descendants  of  the  single  female  which 
flew  about  the  preceding  April,  and  which  would  be  noA« 
capable  of  laying  2,430,000  eggs. 


INFLUENCE  OF  TEMPERATURE  ON  INSECTS.      49 

"  In  Kruman,  in  the  Bohemian  forests,  have  been 
counted,  during  a  period  of  great  increase  of  fir  bark- 
beetles  in  these  forests  from  1871  to  1875,  in  a  portion  of 
bark  a  square  meter  in  extent,  from  1400  to  4800  larvae" 
(Judeich  and  Nitsche). 

Influence  of  Changes  of  Temperature  on  Insect-life. — 
Perhaps  changes  of  temperature  and  unfavorable  seasons 
have,  next  to  the  increasing  competition  or  struggle  for 
existence  among  insects,  and  the  attacks  of  parasites,  the 
greatest  effect  in  maintaining  the  balance  of  nature,  and. 
preventing  the  undue  increase  of  destructive  insects.  Dr. 
Shimer  gives  an  account  of  an  epidemic  among  the  chinch- 
bugs  in  Illinois,  which  "  was  at  its  maximum  during  the 
moist  warm  weather  that  followed  the  cold  rains  of  June 
and  the  first  part  of  July,  1865."  Mr.  C.  Thomas  claims 
that  the  high  temperature  of  1854,  1871,  and  1874,  to- 
gether with  the  diminished  rainfall,  furnishes  the  key  to 
the  cause  of  the  vast  increase  of  chinch-bugs  during  those 
years.  *  Wet  weather  is  favorable  and  dry  weather  is  un- 
favorable to  the  increase  of  the  cotton-worm.  In  times  of 
drought  the  eggs  dry  and.  fail  to  hatch,  the  worms  are  en- 
feebled, "  web  uji"  prematurely,  and  die  in  attempting  to 
transform  into  the  chrysalis  state,  and  when  they  succeed 
the  chrysalides  decay.  "'  Nourishment  and  fecundity  being 
correlated,  it  is  more  than  probable  that  the  moths,  poorly 
nourished,  will  lay  fewer  eggs  under  such  circumstances. 
All  the  effects  described  are  intensified  and  become  most 
marked  during  extreme  drought,  so  that  frequently  at  the 
end  of  a  dry  spell,  such  as  is  not  infrequent  in  July  and 
early  August,  not  a  worm  can  be  found.  A  rainy  season, 
following  such  a  spell,  will  produce  a  most  noticeable 
change."! 

The  Hessian  fly  flourishes  best  in  seasons  when  the 
chinch-bug  flourishes  least.     The  hot,  dry  summer  of  1881 

*  Amer.  Entomologist,  iii.  341. 

f  Riley,  in  Fourth  Report  U.  S.  Entomological  Commission,  84. 


50  ENTOMOLOGY. 

caused  the  pupa-cases  or  flaxseed  to  dry  up,   and  even 
destro3'ed  the  parasites.* 

The  canker-worm,  tent  caterpillar,  and  most  larvae  abound 
less  after  wet  and  cool  springs.  The  spring  of  1885  was 
unusually  cold,  rainy,  and  backward,  and  we  noticed  that  as 
the  result  the  lack  of  caterpillars  and  other  forest-insects, 
as  compared  with  the  season  of  1884,  was  very  marked; 
late  in  the  summer  and  earl}-  in  autumn  there  was  a  re- 
markable scarcity  of  caterpillars  on  oaks,  maples,  poplars, 
etc.,  while  they  were  very  abundant  during  the  previous 
autumn. 

An  English  entomologist,  0.  G.  Barrett,  in  an  excellent 
article  on  the  influence  of  adverse  or  favorable  climatic 
changes  on  insect-life,  states  that  in  the  south  of  England, 
after  an  unusually  cold  wiuter,  with  no  thaws,  moths  be- 
came unusually  abundant  for  several  following  seasons.  As 
he  remarks:  '•' I  think  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  the 
case  of  those  insects  whose  mode  of  life  includes  the. 
capacity  for  hibernation,  their  constitution  is  greatly 
strengthened,  and  their  chance  of  arriving  at  maturity  in- 
creased, if  the  cold  of  winter  is  sufficiently  severe  to  induce 
complete  torpidity,  undisturbed  by  warm  and  spring-like 
weather  at  unseasonable  times,  and  this  may  account  for 
the  vast  increase  in  numbers  in  species  which  hibernate 
in  the  egg  state;  it  also  probably  has  a  strengthening  effect 
on  those  which  pass  the  winter  as  small  social  larvae  under 
a  silken  tent  on  the  ground,  or  which,  like  Xoctufe,  hiber- 
nate in  the  larval  state  on  the  ground  or  among  dead  leaves, 
and  are  tempted  out  to  feed  by  every  warm  and  genial 
evening. 

"  On  the  other  hand,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  mild 
winters  act  directly  to  cause  the  destruction  of  both  hiber- 
nating larvae  and  pupae,  in  two  ways.  One  is  by  encourag- 
ing the  growth  of  mould,  which  we  know  attacks  them  as 
soon  as,  from  excess  of  rain  or  humidity,  they  become 

*C.  V.  Riley,  Amer.  Xat.,  Xov.  1881,  916. 


INFLUENCE  OF  TEMPERATURE  ON  INSECTS.     51 

sickly;  the  other  by  permitting  the  continued  activity  of 
predaceous  creatures. 

"  These  are  very  numerous.  Moles  continue  at  work  in 
mild  winters,  instead  of  burying  themselves  deep  in  the 
ground ;  and  mice  are  constantly  active.  These  small 
mammalia  destroy  great  numbers  of  Lepidopterous  pupae, 
and  they  abound  in  this  district,  as  also  do  birds  during 
the  winter  in  an  extraordinary  degree.  As  soon  as  severe 
cold  sets  in  to  the  north  and  east,  the  birds  come  down  in 
swarms  to  the  open  fields  and  sheltered  hillsides  of  this 
district,  and  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  point  them  out  as 
most  industrious  and  persevering  destroyers  of  larvae. 
Predaceous  beetles  and  earwigs  are  generally  on  the  alert 
all  through  very  mild  winters;  and  although  they  probably 
do  not  eat  much  at  that  time,  and,  indeed,  are  not  very 
plentiful  in  Pembrokeshire,  they  must  destroy  many  larvae 
and  pup£e,  having  little  else  to  subsist  upon.  But  I  believe 
that  the  mischief  done  by  all  these  added  together  does  not 
equal  that  done  by  the  0 nisei."  * 

In  his  work  on  bark-beetles  Eichhoff  tells  us  that  the 
chief  factors  in  the  growth  of  these  insects  are  good  weather 
and  sufiBcient  food.  An  uninterrupted  drj^,  and  hence  hot, 
summer  checks  the  growth  of  the  larvae,  and  retards  their 
speedy  development,  and  more  often  prevents  a  repetition 
of  the  broods  than  an  uninterrujjted  wet  and  cold  spring 
and  summer.  Hence  on  account  of  the  great  heat  and 
drought  many  trees  survive  which  otherwise  would  be  in- 
jured by  the  later  broods  of  bark-beetles.  The  most  favor- 
able conditions  for  the  increase  of  bark-beetles  are  doubtless 
a  warm  early  spring,  a  warm  summer  with  frequent  rains, 
and  a  long  mild  autumn. 

It  is  well  understood  in  central  Europe  that  great  num- 
bers of  may-beetles  die  during  a  cold  wet  May.  After  an 
exceptionally  warm  and  dry  summer  and  autumn  we  may 


'Psyche,  iv.  83;  abstract  from  Ent.  Month.  Mag.,  June,  1882,  1. 


62  ENTOMOLOGY. 

expect  invasions  of  the  northern  army-worm   {Leucania 

2C7ii2JU7lct(l). 

Periodicity  in  Insect-life. — As  there  may  be  a  succession 
of  seasons  favorable  to  the  development  of  insect-life,  so 
there  may  be  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  numbers  of 
insects,  until  they  abound  to  excess.  In  this  way  periodical 
invasions  of  locusts  happen  the  world  over.  A  number  of 
successive  favorable  seasons  may  result  in  a  greater  number 
of  eggs  of  Leucania  hatching,  and  the  caterpillars  nearly 
all  arriving  at  maturity,  none  dying  from  bad  weather,  they 
abound  in  extraordinary  numbers,  and  in  great  armies 
march  through  grass-lands  and  wheat-fields  in  what  seem 
to  us  countless  numbers.  We  thus  realize  how  many  vicis- 
situdes await  the  caterpillars  in  ordinary  seasons,  and  how 
few  pairs  survive.  Another  striking  case  is  that  of  the 
spruce-bud  Tortrix  {T.fumiferana),  which  for  a  number  of 
years  destroyed  the  spruce  and  firs  on  the  coast  of  Maine, 
this  species  being  rare  and  seldom  captured  either  in  the 
larva  or  imago  stage  in  other  years. 

Number  of  Species  of  Insects. — The  insects  number  about 
four-fifths  of  the  animal  kingdom,  since  it  is  estimated 
that  there  are  not  less  than  from  200,000  to  250,000  species 
in  public  and  private  collections.  The  Coleoptera  are  the 
most  numerous,  there  being  100,000  species  known,  90,000 
species  at  least  existing  in  museums;  of  Hymenoptera  and 
Lepidoptera  as  well  as  Diptera  there  are  not  less  than 
25,000  species  of  each  order;  of  Hemiptera  about  27,000 
species  exist  in  museums,  and  Uhler  supposes  that  the  entire 
number  is  nearly  50,000;  the  species  of  the  smaller  orders 
would  easily  carry  the  total  number  of  known  species  up  to 
200,000.  As  recently  remarked  by  Dr.  Sharp,  probably  only 
from  a  fourth  to  a  tenth  of  the  existing  species  of  insects 
are  known;  and  as  McLachlan  has  stated,  it  is  not  im- 
probable that  the  number  of  species  of  insects  now  living 
on  the  earth's  surface  will  be  found  to  be  about  1,000,000. 

The  number  of  described  species  of  American  insects 


NUMBER  OF  SPECIES  OF  INSECTS.  53 

north  of  Mexico  has  been  stated  by  Mr.  J,  A.  Lintner  (1886) 
to  be  as  follows: 

Species. 

Hymenoptera 4450 

Lepidoptera:   Butterflies    (Edwards's  List,    1884,    614; 

Scudder's  estimate,  1887) 500 

Larger  Moths  (Grote's  Check  List,  1882), 

3184 — additions  since  making  about. . .     3271 
Tineidae  (Chambers's  List,  1878,  not  iu- 

chided  in  Grote's  List) 779—4550 

Diptera  (OstenSiicken's  estimate  in  1878) 2500 

Coleoptera  (Henshaw's  List  of  1885,  9238;  up  to  '88,  275) 9513 

Hemiptera:  Homoptera  (Uhler's  estimate) 1200 

Heteroptera  (Uhler's  Check  List,  1886). . . .     1448—2648 

Orthoptera  (Scudder's  estimate) 450 

All  other  orders,  not  estimated;  perhaps 1000 

Total 25,  111 


(Edipoda  xanthoptera. 


CHAPTER  III. 
CLASSIFICATION  OF  INSECTS. 

Having  examined  the  locust  with  the  aid  of  the  fore- 
going descrijation,  the  student  should  make  his  studies 
comj)arative  by  carefully  examining  a  cricket  and  a  green 
grasshopper.  Then  he  might  turn  to  the  following  de- 
scriptions of  examples  or  types  of  the  order  of  white 
ants,  dragon-flies,  hugs,  beetles,  flies,  moths,  bees,  etc.,  and 
as  the  result  of  his  work  he  will  be  able  to  grasp  the  fact 
that  the  species  of  insects,  as  a  ride,  have  bodies  composed 
of  seventeen  seg^nents,  which  are  arranged  in  three  regions, 
viz.,  a  head,  thorax,  and  hind  tody  or  aJjdomen ;  that  the 
thorax  hears  two  2jairs  of  ivings,  and  three  ^jairs  of  jointed 
or  segmented  .legs  J  that  ihey  hreafJie  iy  internal  air-tuhes 
opening  externally  hy  spiracles^,  ^nd  thaf  in  growing  they 
either  develop  directly,  or  undergo  «  cotuplete  metamorphosis. 

The  class  of  insects  is  divided  or  classified  into  orders, 
families,  genera,  and  species,  and  the  study  of  the  classi- 
fication of  insects  is  called  Systematic  Entomology. 
The  class,  as  regards  existing  forms,  is  divided  into  sixteen 
orders,  as  follows,  beginning  with  the  lowest  or  wingless 
order,  Thysanura,  and  ending  with  the  highest  or  most 
complicated  group,  the  Hymenoptera. 

CLASS   INSECTA. 

Jointed  animals  with  a  distinct  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen;  three  pairs 
of  legs,  and  usually  two  pairs  of  wings;  bi-eathing  by  trachete;  usiially 
witli  a  metamoi'phosis,  viz.,  a  larval,  pupal,  and  adult  stage. 

Sekies  I.     Ametabola,  or  with  au  incomplete  metamorphosis. 

Order  1.  Thysanura. — Wiugle.ss,  minute,  with  a  spring,  or  ab- 
domen ending  in  a  pair  of  caudal  st3iets;  usually  no  compound 
eyes;  no  metamorphosis.  (Examples:  Podura,  Campodea,  Scolopen- 
drella,  Lepisma.) 

Order  2.  Dermaptera. — Body  flat;  the  abdomen  ending  in  a  for- 
ceps; fore  wings  small,  elytra-like;  hind  wings  ample,  folded  under 
the  tii'st  pair.     (Foi'ticula.) 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  INSECTS.  55 

Order  ;3.  Orthoptera — Wiugs  net-veiued;  fore  wiugs  narrow, 
straight,  not  often  used  in  tlight;  hind  wiugs  large,  and  folded  when 
at  rest  under  the  first  pair;  metamorphosis  incomplete;  pupa  active. 
(Caloptenus,  Locusta,  Phaueroptera,  Acheta  ) 

Order  4.  Platyptera. — Body  usually  flattened;  pronotum  usually 
large  and  square;  often  wingless.  (Mallophaga  or  ])ird-lice,  Perla, 
Psocus,  white  ants.) 

Order  5.  Odonata. — Prothorax  small;  remainder  of  the  thora.x 
spherical;  both  pairs  of  wiugs  of  nearly  the  same  size,  net-veined. 
Larva  ami  pupa  aipiatic;  labium  of  the  larva  forming  a  large  mask. 
(Agrion,  Libellula.) 

Order  6.  Plectoptera. — Mouth-parts  nearly  obsolete;  wiugs  net- 
veined,  hinder  pair  small,  sometimes  wanting;  abdomen  ending  in 
three  filaments.  Larv«  aquatic,  with  large  jaws,  and  with  gills  on 
the  sides  of  the  hiud  body.     (Ephemera.) 

Order  7.  Thysanoptera. — Mouth-parts  forming  a  short  conical 
sucker;  palpi  present;  wiugs  narrow,  not  veined,  fringed;  feet 
bulbous  at  the  end,  without  claws.     (Thrips.) 

Order  8.  Hemiptera. — Mouth-parts  forming  a  sucking'  beak;  pro- 
thorax  usually  large;  fore  wings  often  thickened  at  base;  pupa 
active.    (Coreus,  Cimex,  Arma,  Pentatoma,  Cicada,  Coccus,  Aphis.) 

Series  II.     Metabola,  or  with  a  complete  metamorpho.sis. 

Order  9.  Neuroptera. — Wiugs  uet- veined;  mouth-parts  free, 
adapted  for  biting;  ligula  large,  rounded;  pronotum  large  and 
square.     Larvpe  often  aquatic.     (Corydalus,  Chrysopa,  Myrmeleou  ) 

Order  10.  Mecaptera. — Wings  somewhat  net-veiued,  or  absent; 
head  lengthened  into  a  beak-like  projection.  Larvae  like  caterpillars. 
(Panorpa,  Boreus.) 

Order  11.  Trichoptera. — Wings  and  body  like  those  of  Tineid 
moths;  mandibles  obsolete  in  the  imago.  Larvfe  usually  aquatic, 
living  in  cases.    (Phrygauea.) 

Order  12.  Coleoptera. — Fore  wings  thick,  ensheathing  the  hinder 
pair,  which  are  alone  used  in  tlight;  mouth-parts  free,  adapted  for 
biting;  metamorphosis  complete.  (Doryphora,  Prionus,  Lucanus, 
Harpalus,  Cicindela.) 

Order  13.  Siphonaptera. — Wingless;  mouth-parts  adapted  for  suck- 
ing. Larv*  maggot-like,  but  with  a  well-developed  head  and 
mouth-parts.    (Pulex.) 

Order  14.  Diptera. — Only  two  wiugs;  mouth-parts  adapted  for 
lapping  and  sucking;  a  complete  metamorphosis.  (Musca,  CEstrus, 
Syrphus,  Cecidomyia,  Tipula,  Culex.) 

Order  15.  Lepidoptera. — Body  and  wiugs  covered  with  scales; 
maxillae  lengthened  into  a  very  long  tongue;  larvee  (caterpillars) 
with  abdominal  legs.  (Tinea,  Geometra,  Noctua,  Bombyx,  Sphinx, 
Papilio.) 

Order  16.  Hjrmenoptera. — Wings  clear,  with  few  veins;  mouth- 
parts  with  a  variety  of  functions,  i.e.,  bitiug,  lapping  liquids,  etc. 
In  the  higher  families  the  thorax  consists  of  four  segments,  the  first 
abdominal  segment  of  the  larva  being  transferred  to  the  thorax  in 
the  pupa  and  imago.  Metamorphosis  complete.  (TenthredOj  Cynips, 
Ichneumon,  Sphex,  Vespa,  Apis.) 


56  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Tabular  View  of  the  Orders  of  InsectA. 


b1 


^ 


•^ 


I' 


Si 


g 


fti    'S 


^      I; 


Metabola. 


Ametabola. 


Thysanura 
(Campodea). 


Oeder  I.    Thysanura*    {Spring-tails  mid  Bristle-tails). 

The  Thysanura  are  very  primitive  forms,  are  all  wing- 
less,  with  usually  simple  eyes,  and  undergo  no  metamor- 
phosis.    They  usually  live  in  damp  places  under  stones, 

*  Selected  Works. 

Gervais,  P.,  in  Walckenaer,  "  Hist.  Nat.  des  Insectes  Apteres,"  iii. 

377  (1844). 
Haliday,  A.  H.     lapyx,  a  new  genus  of  insects,  etc.  (Trans.  Linn. 

Soc,  London,  xxiv.,  1864). 
Lubbock,  J.     Monograph  of  the  Collembola  and  Thysanura  (Roy.  Soc, 

Loudon,  1873). 
Meinert,  F.     CampodeiB,  a  family  of  Thysanura  (Naturhist.  Tids- 

skrift,  Copenliageu,  1865)  (Swedish  and  Latin). 
Nicolet,  H.     Recherches  sin-  les  Podurelles  (Neuchatel,  1843). 
Packard,  A.  S.     Bristle-tails  and  Spring- tails  {Amer.  Nat.,  v.,  1871), 

and  "  Our  Common  Insects  "  (1873). 
Synopsis  of  the  Thysanura  of  Essex  County,  Mass.  (5th  Rep.  Peab. 

Acad.  Sc.  Salem,  1872). 
Tullberg,  J.  P.     Swedish  Podurid*  (Stockholm,  1872). 
Collembola  boreali  (Roy.  Swedish  Acad.,  Stockholm,  1876). 


ORDER  THT8ANURA.  57 

etc.,  though  the  bristle-tails  prefer  warm  and  dry  situations, 
and  either,  as  in  the  Cinura,  run  swiftly,  or,  as  in  the 
Poduridae,  vigorously  leap  by  means  of  a  long  appendage  at 
the  end  of  the  body,  which  on  being  released  throws 
the  insect  high  in  the  air.  The  higher  members  of  the 
order,  as  Campodea  and  Scolopendrella,  are  connecting 
links  between  the  true  insects  and  the  centipedes  [Myrio- 
poda).     In  many  Podurids  the  tracheae  are  wanting. 

Sub-order  1.  CoUembola. — The  spring-tails  are  degraded 
forms,  with  the  mouth-parts  quite  rudimentary,  and  re- 
tracted within  the  head,  only  the  ends  projecting.  What 
correspond  to  the  anal  stylets  of  Campodea  and  Lepisma 
are  in  the  Podurids  united  at  the  base  and  bent  under  the 
hind  body  to  form  the  spring,  which  is  held  in  place  by  a 
hook  or  tenamihim  ;  on  the  under  side  of  the  hind  body  is 
a  sort  of  sucker  {collophore),  and  as  no  other  insects  pos- 
sess this  singular  apparatus,  the  group  is  named  from  it 
CoUembola,  which  means  to  throw  out  a  sucker,  so  as  to 
adhere  to  surfaces.     Their  bodies  are  covered  with  scales. 

These  spring-tails  occur  everywhere  under  leaves,  the 
bark  of  trees,  etc.,  and  rarely  live  except  in  moist  or  shaded 
places,  where  their  eggs  are  deposited.  The  snow-flea 
{Aclioi'utes  nivicola)  is  sometimes  seen  in 
great  numbers  leaping  on  snow.  They 
should  be  preserved  in  vials  of  alcohol,  and 
can  be  collected  by  placing  an  ether  vial  over 
them  and  allowing  the  creatures  to  spring 
into  it,  or  the  finger  wet  with  the  saliva  can 
be  lightly  laid  on  them,  when  they  can  be 
transferred  to  a  vial  of  alcohol.  They  can 
also  be  mounted  in  balsam  on  glass  slides.       ^Mts^aspring-tau. 

Family  Poduridae. — Body  long  aud  slender,  head  small,  Tomocerus 
plumbeus  (Linn.);  or  body  short,  Smynthurus  elegans  Fitch. 

Sub-order  2.  Symphyla.* — A  remarkably  composite  type, 
having  the  head  of  a  Campodea,  while  the  abdomen  has 
a  pair  of  legs  to  each  joint,  like  the  centipedes. 

Family  Scolopendrellidae,  wiih  the  characters  of  the  suborder. 
Scolopendrella  immaculata  Newport. 

*  The  Symphyta  should  be  regarded  as  forming  a  distinct  order. 


58 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Sub-order  3.  Cinura. — Here  belong  the  bristle-tails,  the 
hind  body  being  long,  and  with  small, 
rudimentary  processes  corresponding  to 
the  abdominal  feet  of  Scolojjendrella. 

Family  Campodidae. — Willi  long,  slender 
bodies  and  long,  delicate  caudal  stylets. 
Campodea  Htaphylin us  Westw. 

Family  lapygidae. — Like  Campodea,  but 
the  body  ending  in  a  pair  of  forceps.  lapyx 
subUrraneits  Pack. 

Family  Lepismatidae.  —  Body  flattened, 
covered  with  scales,  willi  five  caudal  stylets, 
three  of  which  are  very  long.  Sometimes 
injurious  to  papers  and  books.  Lepisma 
saccharina  Linn.,  L.  doviestica  Pack,  has 
injured  books  in  the  library  of  Wellesley 
College.  L.  4-fieriaia  Pack.  (Fig.  42).  In 
Machilis  the  eyes  are  large  and  compound. 
Fig.  42.— Lepisma  4-seriata.  MacMlis  variabilis  Say. 

Order  II.  Dermaptera*  {Earwigs). 

This  small  group  comprises  the  earwigs,  which  are  noc- 
turnal insects  very  rare  in  this  country,  except  in  the 
Southern  States,  but  common  in  Europe. 
Usually  placed  among  the  Orthoptera,  the  ear- 
wigs have  certain  important  characters  which 
forbid  our  placing  them  in  that  order.  The 
fore  wings  are  very  small  and  short,  like  the 
elyira  of  the  rove-beetles,  while  the  large, 
broad,  transparent,  hinder  wings  are  folded 
under  the  anterior  pair,  the  process  of  folding 
being  aided  by  the  large  forceps  at  the  end  of 
the  body;  the  latter  is  long  and  narrow  and  fig.  ^.—Worfi- 
much  flattened.  pervms"'^'^'^^' 

Family  Forficulidae. — Body  long,  Forficula;  body  short,  Labia. 


*  Selected  Works. 

Dufour,  L.  Recherches  anatomiques  sur  les  Labidoures  or  Perce- 
oreilles  (Ann.  des  Sc.  Nat.,  xiii.).     1828. 

Meinert,  F.     Anatomia  Forficularum.    Copenhagen,  1863. 

Packard,  A.  S.  (External  Anatomy,  in  third  report  U.  S.  Ent.  Commis- 
sion, 1883,  p.  304,  Pis.  XXIII,  XXIV). 

Scudder,  S.  H.  Notes  on  Foi-ficulari^e,  with  list  of  described  species 
(Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  xviii.,  1876). 


ORDER  ORTHOPTERA.  59 

Order     III.     Orthoptera*     {Locusts,     GrassJioppers, 

Crickets,  etc.). 

;6y  no  means  do  all  the  members  of  this  group,  as  the 
name  of  the  order  would  imply,  have  straight  fore  wings, 
but  in  the  locusts  and  grasshoppers  they  are  generally 
narrow,  straight,  and  thicker  than  the  hinder  pair, 
serving  as  wing-covers  to  protect  the  hinder,  thinner  ones. 
The  antennas  may  be  very  long,  while  the  pronotum  is 
almost  invariably  broad  and  large,  flattened  or  compressed 
and  moving  freely  on  the  rest  of  the  thorax,  which  is  cov- 
ered by  the  wings  when  folded.  The  hind  wings  are  much 
larger  than  the  front  ones,  and  have  numerous  longitudinal 
and  cross  veins,  while  the  ovipositor,  when  present,  varies 
much  in  shape  and  size;  and  the  number  of  tarsal  joints 
varies  from  two  to  five. 

Fig.  44  illustrates  the  incomplete  metamorphosis  of  the 
common  red-legged  locust;  it  represents  the  freshly-hatched 
larva,  which  moults  once  before  its  wings  begin  to  bud 
out,  as  at  35;  this  stage  (dh)  may  be  called  the  first  pupal 

*  Selected  "Works. 

Glover,  T.    Illustrations  of  North  American  Entomology.    Orthoptera. 

(4to,  13  pis.    Washington,  1872.) 
Riley,  Packard,  and  Thomas.     First,  Second,  and  Third  Reports  U.  S. 

Entomological  Commission,  1877-83. 
Saussure,  H.  de.     Studies  of  the  Orthoptera  of  Mexico  and  Central 

America  (Paris,  1870-74).     (In  French.) 
Scudder,  S.  H.     Materials  for  a  Monograph  of  the  N.  A.  Orthoptera 

(Jour.  Bost.  Soc,  vii.,  1862). 
Catalogue   of  North  American   Orthoptera    (Smithsonian    Misc. 

CoU.,  viii.    Washington,  1868). 
Revision  of  the  Mole  Crickets  (Mem.  Peabody  Acad.,  No.  1. 

Salem,  1869). 
Serville,  A.     Natural  History  of  the  Orthoptera  (suites  a  Buffon).     (1 

vol.,8vo.     Paris,  1839.)    (In  French.) 
StoU,   C.     Representations    of  the  Phasmidse,    Mantidae,   Acrididae, 

Gryllidae  (etc.),  of  the  four  parts  of  the  world  (2  vols.,  4to,  70  pis. 

Amsterdam,  1815).    (In  French.) 
Thomas,   C.     Sjmopsis  of  Acrididae  of  North  America  (Final  Report 

U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.,  yc\  v.     4to.     Washington,  1875). 
Walker,  F.     Complete  catalogue  of  Dermaptera  Saltatoria  (4  vols 

and  suppl.    8vo.    London,  1869-71). 


Fig.  44. — Incomplete  metamorphosis  of  the  common  red-legged  locust,  Calop- 
tenus  femur-i'ubrum.  I,  la,  2,  26,  2c,  the  two  larval  stages:  3-5,  the  three 
pupal  stages;  6,  6a,  the  adult.— Emerton  del.  (To  face  page  61.) 


HABITS  OF  LOCUSTS. 


61 


stage,  and  as  the  locust  moults  twice  afterwards  before  the 
final  imago  stage  is  reached,  it  may  be  said  to  have  three 
pupal  stages.  AVhen  we  compare  the  freshly-hatched  larva 
with  the  adult,  we  see  that  the  only  important  difference  is 
the  presence  of  wings. 

There  is  no  great  change,  such  as  marks  the  life-history 
of  a  butterfly.  Perhaps  it  is  by  reason  of  their  incomplete 
metamorphosis,  the  general  uniformity  of  their  habits,  and 
their  living  on  vegetable  food,  that  Orthoptera  are  not 
numerous  in  species  compared  with  the  beetles  and  higher 
orders. 

The  locusts  lay  their  eggs  in  packets  in  the  ground 
(Fig.    45).      With  its    ovipositor,  which  is   made   up   of 


Fig.  45.— Rocky  Mouutaiu  locust  laying  its  eggs  (c)  one  by  one,  forming  an  oval 
mass.    All  natural  size. — After  Riley. 

three  pairs  of  short  spines,  the  two  outer  pairs  very  large 
and  stout,  the  locust  thrusts  its  hind  body  deep  into  the 
earth  and  deposits  a  packet  of  eggs. 

Many  dangers  attend  the  life  of  these  insects.  To  over- 
come or  to  avoid  them,  many  of  them,  as  certain  katydids, 
the  leaf-insects,  and  the  stick-insects,  mimic  leaves  and 
sticks,  so  that  insectivorous  birds  are  deceived  by  them. 

Locusts  are  also  attacked  by  parasites:  little  red  mites 
stick  to  their  bodies;  hair-worms,  and  especially  the  mag- 


62 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


got  of  the  flesh-fly,  infest  them,  and  thus  thousands  of  them 
are  swept  away.  All  this  is  of  use,  however,  for  were  it 
not  for  the  kindly  aid  thus  rendered,  the  earth  would  be 
each  year  overrun  with  locusts. 

The  males  of  many  Orthoptera,  as  the  crickets,  green 
grasshoppers,  katydids,  etc.,  and  locusts,  produce  loud, 
shrill  sounds,  by  which  they  attract  the  females;  but  in  the 
European  Ephippigera,  one  of  the  Locustidse,  the  female 
is  provided  with  well-developed  vocal  organs.  They  stridu- 
late  in  three  ways — i.e.,  first,  by  rubbing  the  base  of  one 
wing-cover  on  the  other  (crickets  and  green  grasshoppers); 
second,  by  rubbing  the  inner  surface  of  the  hind  legs 
against  the  outer  surface  of  the  front  wings  (some  locusts); 
third,  by  rubbing  together  the  upper  surface  of  the  front 
edge  of  the  hind  wings  and  the  under  surface  of  the  wing- 
covers  during  flight  (some  locusts). 

Family  Blattariae. — Body  flattened, 
oval,  with  a  broad  pronotum;  fore 
wings  broad  oval;  antennae  long  and 
filiform.  Blatta  orientalis  Linn,,  and 
Periplaiieta  americana  (Linn.).  While 
troublesome  from  eating  clothing, 
etc.,  and  mischievous  in  bakeries  and 
storehouses,  they  are  serviceable  in 
clearing  houses  and  ships  of  bed- 
bugs. The  eggs  are  laid  in  a  bean- 
shaped  capsule  (ootheca),  which  is 
divided  into  two  compartments,  each 
containing  about  thirty  eggs.  Our 
native  species,  Platamodes  'pensyl- 
vanica  (De  Geer),  lives  under  stones. 

All  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits.     The  metamorpliosis  of  B.  orientalis 

is  said  to  require  four  years. 
Family  Mantidae. — Fore  legs  adapted  for  seizing  their  prey,  which 


Fig.  46.— Croton  bug,  Ectobia  ger- 
manica.    Natural  size. 


Fig.  i7.— Mantis  Carolina,  soothsayer.    Natural  size. 
consists  of  other  insects.   Eggs  laid  in  large  bunches  on  various  plants 


ORDER  PLATTPTERA.  63 

Family  Phasmidae  — The  walking-sticks  or  spectres,  represented 
by  our  Binpheromera  femoratum  Say,  whicli  resemble  twigs,  are  very 
slender,  with  more  or  less  cylindrical  bodies 
and  long  legs;  their  wings  are  either  want- 
ing or  rudimentary,  or  if  developed,  strik- 
ingly leaf-like,  as  in  the  leaf-insect  (Fig.  48, 
PhyUium  siccifoUum  Linn.). 

Family  Acrydiidse. — Locusts  have  short 
antennae,  and  the  body  is  laterally  com- 
pressed; the  ears  are  at  the  base  of  the  hind 
body,  while  the  ovipositor  is  short.  CEdi- 
poda  Carolina  (Linn.),  Caloptenvs  spretus, 
and  (J.  femur-rubrum. 

Family    Locustidae. — Body    compressed; 
but  the  antennae   very  long  and   slender, 
while  the  ovipositor  is  very  large  and  sabre- 
shaped.     Some  forms,  as  Ceuthophilus,  are  yig.   48.— Leaf-insect,    Phyl- 
wingless.     The  large    green    gras.shoppers     Hum.    Half  natural' size, 
represent  this  group,  of  which  'the  katydid  and  its  allies  {Phanerop- 
tera  curmcauda  De  Geer)  are  familiar  examples.    Certain  forms  close- 
ly resemble  leaves. 

Family  Gryllidae.— In  the  crickets  the  body  is  somewhat  flattened 
vertically,  or  it  may  be  more  or  less  cylindrical,  and  the  abdomen 
ends  in  a  pair  of  long  stylets.  The  mole-cricket,  Gryllotnlvn  borealis 
Burm.,  burrows  in  moist  earth.  The  tree- cricket  {(Ecanthns  niveus 
Serville)  makes  a  loud  shrilling  noise  by  rubbing  the  upper  on  the 
under  wings,  and  injures  ra.spberry -bushes  and  other  shrubs  by  laying 
its  eggs  in  the  twigs. 

Order  IV.  Platyptera*  {White  Ants,  etc.). 

This  group  comprises  the  bird-lice,  Psocidfe,  stone-flies 
(Perlidse),  and  the  white  ants.     In  all  except  the  Psocidge 

*  SEiiECTED  Works. 
Platyptera  in  general. 

Hagen,  H.  A.  Synopsis  of  the  Neuroptera  of  North  America  (Smith. 
Inst.  1861). 

Packard,  A.  S.  (External  anatomy,  in  third  report  U.  S.  £nt.  Com- 
mission, 1883,  pp.  293,  332,  with  plates.) 

a.  Mallophaga. 

Denny,  H.     Monographia  Anoplurorum  Britannise  (London,  1863). 
Grosse,  F.    Beitriige  zur  Kenntuiss  der  Mallophagen  (Zeits.  f.  Wissen 

Zool.,  xlii.,  1885,  530.     Abstract  by  G.  McCloskey  in  Amer.  Nat.. 

1886,  340). 
Melnikow,  N.     Beitrage    zur  Embryonalentwicklung  der  Insekten 

(Archiv  f.  Naturg.,  xxxv.,  1869). 


64  ENTOMOLOGY. 

the  body  is  flattened,  and  the  head  extended  liorizontally. 
The  pronotum  is  large,  broad,  and  more  or  less  square;  the 


Nitsch,  C.    L.      Die  Familien   und    Gattungen    der    Thierinsekten 

(Germar's  Mag.  d.  Eut.,  iii.,  1812). 

Insecta  epizoa  (Leipzig,  1874.     Edited  by  Giebel). 

Packard,    A.    S.      On   the  systematic  position  of    the    Mallophaga 

(Proc.  Amer.  Phil    Soc,  xxiv.,  1887,  p.  264). 
Piaget.     Les  Pediculines  (Leyden,  1880). 

h.  Perlidae  {Plecoptera). 

Gerstaecker,  A.  TJeber  das  Vorkommen  von  Tracheenkiemen  bei 
aii.sgebildeten  lusekten  (Zeits.  f.  Wisseu.  Zool.,  xxiv.,  1874). 

Hagen,  H.  A.     Synopsis  of  N.  A.  Ncuroptera. 

Newport,  G.  On  the  auatomj^  and  affinities  of  Pteronarcys  regalis 
(Trans.  Linn.  Soc,  London,  xx.,  1851). 

Packard,  A.  S.  (External  anatomv  of  Pteronarcys,  in  third  report 
U.  S.  Eut.  Commission,  1883,  p'.  822,  Pis.  XI,  XLIV,  LVII). 

Pictet,  P.  Histoire  naturelle,  etc.,  des  insectes  Neuropteres :  Part 
I.,  Perlides;  Part  IL,  Ephemerines.  (Geneve,  1841-45.  With  col- 
ored plates.) 

c.  Psocidae  {Cwrodentia  in  part). 

Burgess,  E.     The  anatomy  of  the  head,  and  the  structure  of  the 

maxilla,  in  the  Psocidae  (Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  xix.,  1878, 

291). 
Hagen,  H.  A.     Sj'nopsis  of  N.  A.  Neuroptera. 
Beitrage  zur  Monographic   der  Psociden   (Stettin  Eut.  Zeit., 

1882). 
Nitzsch,  C.  L      Ueber  die  Eingeweide  der  Bucherlaus,  Psocus  jnilsa- 

ton'i/s  (Germar's  Mag.  d.  Ent.,  iv.,  276). 
Packard,  A.  S.  (External  anatomy  of  Psocus,  in  third  report  U.  S. 

Ent.  Commission,  1883,  p.  325,  Pis.  XXXIX,  XLIII). 

d.  Embidse. 

Hagen,  H.  A.     Monograph  of  the  Embidina  (Canadian  Ent  ,  xvii., 

188.-)). 
Westwood,  J.  0.     Characters  of  Embia,  a  genus  of  insects  allied  to 

the  white  ants  (Trans.  Linn.  Soc,  xvii.,  369). 

See  also  the  writings  of  McLachlan,  Wood-3Iason,  etc. 

e.  Termitidae  {Corrodentia  in  part). 

Hagen.  H.  A.     Monographic  der  Terraiten  (Linuaea  Entomolog.,  x., 

xii.,  and  xiv.). 
Mnller,   F.     Beitrage    zur    Kenntniss    der    Termiteu    (Jena.    Nat. 

Zoitsch.,  vii.,  187^3). 
Packard,  A.  S.  (External   anatomy,  in  third   report  U.  S.  Ent.  Com- 

mi.ssiou,  1883,  p.  326,  Pis.  XXXIX-XLIII) 
Smeathman,  H.     Some  account  of  the  Termites,  which  are  found  in 

Africa  and  other  hot  climates  (Phil.  Trans.,  ixxi.,  1781.  Loudon). 


ORDER  PLATTPTE'RA. 


65 


meso-  and  metanotum  are  remarkable  on  account  of  the 
imperfectly  formed  scuta  and  scutella,  the  latter  being  in- 
definite in  outline,  though  large.  The  chest-pieces  (or 
sterna)  are  large  and  broad;  and  there  are  often  eleven  seg- 
ments in  the  abdomen.  The  order  receives  its  name  from 
the  fact  that  the  wings  are  usually  laid  flat  upon  the  back 
when  the  insect  is  at  rest. 

The  bird-lice  (Mallophaga),  though  usually  associated 
with  the  true  lice  (which  are  wingless  parasitic  Hemiptera), 
in  reality  seem  to  be  degraded,  Avingless  Platyptera,  and  in 


Fig.  49.- 


-Terntes  flnvipt-s.  while  ant.    a,  lai'\a;   b.  wiiiffed  male;  c,  worker;  d, 
soldier;  e,  large  female;  /,  iiympli  or  pupa.— From  Riley. 


the  shape  of  the  body  and  mouth-parts  are  more  nearly 
allied  to  the  family  PsocidcB,  which  includes  the  death- 
tick,  than  any  other  group  of  insects;  hence  we  regard 
these  parasites  as  forming  a  sub-order  of  the  present  group. 
All  the  insects  of  this  order  have  some  remarkable  peculiar- 
ities. The  stone-flies  or  Perlidfe,  which  as  larvae  live  in  the 
water  and  breathe  by  external  tufts  of  gills  growing  on  the 
under  side  of  the  thorax,  in  some  cases,  as  in  the  species  of 
Pteronarcys,  retain  them  in  the  winged  state. 
5 


66  ENTOMOLOGY. 

The  white  ants  top  the  Platypterous  series;  they  live, 
like  ants,  in  stumps  and  fallen  trees,  and  do  much  harm, 
especially  in  the  tropics,  by  undermining  the  sills  of  houses, 
and  destroying  furniture,  books,  etc.  Their  colonies  are 
very  large  and  populous. 

In  our  Termes  flavipes  there  are,  besides  males  and 
females,  workers  and  soldiers;  the  workers  being  white, 
small,  ant-like,  and  wingless,  Vith  small  round  heads,  while 
the  soldiers  have  large  square  heads,  with  long  jaws;  the 
pupae  are  active.  In  Brazil  a  species  of  white  ant  is  differ- 
entiated into  six  different  sets  of  individuals:  viz.,  winged 
and  wingless  females;  winged  and  wingless  males;  workers 
and  soldiers,  A  wingless  male  and  female  may,  on  the 
death  of  a  normal  winged  male  and  female,  replace  them  in 
the  colony.  A  male  or  king  was  found  by  Miiller  living 
with  thirty-one  complemental  females. 

Sub-order  1.  Mallophaga. — The  bird-lice  live  usually  as 
parasites  under  the  feathers  of 
birds,  eating  the  feathers;  but  the 
species  of  two  genera  (Tricho- 
dectes  and  Gyropus)  live  on  mam- 
mals, eating  the  young  hairs,  and 
sometimes  clots  of  blood.  They 
differ  from  lice  in  having  jaws 
adapted  for  biting.  They  can  be 
mounted  in  balsam  as  transparent 
objects  for  the  microscope. 

Family      Philopteridae.— With      fila- 
mentous 3-  or  5- jointed  antennoe,  but  no 
palps.    Trichodectes  canis  De  Geer,  para- 
FiG.  50.— Goniocotes  of  domestic  sitic  on  dogs;  Go)iiocotes  burnettii  F&ck. 
fo^^'-  on  the  domestic  fowl. 

Family  Liotheidae.— With  club-shaped  4-jointed  antennae  and  palps. 
Oyropus  poixelli  Shrank,  on  the  porpoise;  G.  ovalis,  on  the  Guinea 
pig;  in  the  U.  S.,  Menopon  pallidum  Nitsch,  on  fowls. 

Sub-order  2.  Corrodentia.— Tliis  group  includes  the  nor- 
mal, winged  forms. 


ORDER  PLATYPTERA. 


67 


Family  Perlidae. — Body  long  and  flat;  prothorax  square;  antenna' 
long  and  thread-like;  abdomen  ending  in  two  long  stylets;  wings 


Fig.  51.— a  Perlid  (Nemonra).    a,  pupa  (nymph)  and  imago. 

with  transverse  veins,  and  folded  flat  on  the  back.  The  larvae  and 
pupae  active,  living  under  stones  in  streams,  the  imagines  frequent- 
ing damp,  shady  places  by  water- courses.  Perla  abnoi'mis  Newman; 
Pteronarcys  regalis  Newman. 

Family  Psocidse. — Small  insects,  with  short  cylindrical  bodies,  a 
small  prothorax,  and  a  swollen  clj^peus,  resembling 
Aphides;  wings  small,  deflexed,  with  few  veins;  /     ' 

living  on  lichens,  etc.,  and  on  the  under  side  of 
leaves.  Psocus  novm-scotice  Walker,  Caecilius  (Fig. 
52).  The  book-louse,  Atropos  pulsatorius  (Linn.), 
is  wingless;   it  is  sometimes  called  the  "death- 


FiG.  52.—Coecilius.  Fig.  53.— Atropos 

pulsatorius. 

watch"  or  "death-tick,"  from  being  erroneously  supposed  to  make  a 
ticking  noise  like  the  Anobium  beetle.  It  is  common  in  books, 
and  is  injurious  to  cabinet  specimens  of  small  moths  and  other  deli- 
cate insects. 

Family  Embidse.— Body  long,  flat,  and  narrow;  wings  with  few 
veins.     Embm  savigni  Westw.,  Egypt,  none  in  the  U.  S. 

Family  Termitidae.— The  white"  ants  in  some  features  closely  re- 
semble the  cockroaches,  but  they  are  smaller,  with  narrower  bodies 


68  ENTOMOLOGY. 

and  wings,  the  latter  being  thin  and  finely  net-veined  alike  in 
both  pairs;  antennae  short,  18-20- jointed.  Termed  flampes  Kollar 
(Fig.  49),  Massachusetts  southward. 

Okder  V.  Odonata*  {Dragon-flies). 

In  the  dragon-flies  the  head  is  large,  the  eyes  in  the  typ- 
ical forms  enormous,  while  the  antennae  are  minnte,  like 
short  bristles,  the  sense  of  sight  predominating  over  that  of 
smell,  and  the  jaws  are  large  and  strong,  these  insects  being 
carnivorous,  greedily  snapping  up  flying  insects,  such  as 
mosquitoes,  small  flies,  etc.,  Avhich  they  probably  perceive 


Fig.  54.— a  dragon-flj-,  Diplax  berenice.    Male;  natural  size. 


at  a  much  greater  distance  than  can  most  other  insects. 
The  thorax  is  large,  round,  and  differs  from  that  of  other 
insects  in  the  great  development  of  the  side  pieces  (espe- 

*  Selected  Works. 

Cabot,  L.     The  immature  state  of  the  Odonata  (Mem.  Mus.  Comp. 

ZnoL,  i.,  1872). 
Gerstaecker,  A.      Zur    Morphologic    der    Orthoptera   amphibiotica 

(Berlin,  1873). 
Hagen,  H.  A.     Synopsis  of  the  Neuroptera  of  North  America. 
Synopsis  of  the  Odonata  of  America  (Proe.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist., 

xviii.,  1875). 
Monograph  of  the  earlier  stages  of  the  Odonata  (Trans.  Amer. 

Ent.  Soc,  xii.,  249.    1885). 
Packard,  A.  S.     Embryological  studies  on  Diplax  [^schna  ?],  Peri- 

themis,  etc.  (Mem.    Peab.  Acad.  Sc.  1871). 
Viallanes,  H.     Le  ganglion  optique  de  la  Libellule  (^schna).    (Ann. 

Sc.  Nat.  Zool.,  1884.) 

Also  the  writings  of  Charpentier,  De  Selys-Longchamps,  Hagen, 
McLachlan,  Pictet,  Rambur,  Scudder,  and  Walker. 


DRAQ0N-FLIE8. 


69 


cially  the  epistenui)  and  the  very  small  prothorax.  The 
abdomen  is  very  long  and  slender,  cylindrical,  ending  in  a 
pair  of  claspers  in  the  male.  The  wings  are  large,  densely 
net-veined,  the  hinder  pair  being  often  a  little  larger  than 
the  front  pair. 

Dragon-flies  either,  as  in  Libellula  and  allies,  lay  their 
eggs  in  Jelly-like  masses  on  the  surface  of  ponds,  or,  as  in 
Agrion,  they  crawl  deep  in  the  water 
along  the  stems  of  submerged  plants, 
and  with  their  sword-like  ovipositor 
cut  gashes  into  the  stalk  in  which 
they  insert  their  eggs. 

The  larva  of  the  dragon-fly  conceals 
its  powerful  jaws,  for  it  is  very  de- 
structive to  the  smaller  creatures 
about  it,  by  its  enormous  labium  or 
under  lip.  This  forms  a  broad  smooth 
mask  covering  the  lower  part  of  the 
face;  it  is  armed  at  the  broad  spoon- 
shaped  extremity  with  two  sharp  mov- 
able hooks,  adapted  for  seizing  and 
retaining  its  prey.  It  breathes  by  ad- 
mitting water  through  the  vent  into 
the  intestine,  which  near  the  end  is  lined  with  folds  of 
membrane  rich  in  tracheae,  by  which  the  air  is  extracted 
from  the  water  and  mixes  Avith  the 
blood;  the  folds  are  also  so  arranged 
that  the  water  thus  introduced  can  be 
forced  out  as  if  from  a  syringe,  by 
which  the  insect  is  suddenly  propelled 
over  the  bottom.  The  entrance  to  Ihe 
intestine  is  protected  by  from  three 
Fig.  56.-Agrion.  Nat.  size,  to  five  conical  horny  valves,  which 
open  and  shut  at  will.  The  larva  of  Agrion  and  its  allies 
have  three  external  broad,  leaf-like,  tracheary  gills  situated 
at  the  end  (in  the  larva  of  Euphtea  the  gills  are  attached  to 
the  sides)  of  the  body.     Male  dragon-flies  are  sometimes 


Fig.  55.—^  s  c  h  n  a     larva 
(nymph).    Natural  size. 


70  ENTOMOLOGY. 

seusiLly  larger,  and  never  smaller,  than  the  females,  and  do 
not  generally  pair  witli  the  females,  until  a  week  or  fort- 
night after  emerging  from  the  pupa,  and  until  they  have 
assumed  their  proper  masculine  colors  (Darwin's  Descent  of 
Man,  i.  337). 

The  larvae  are  interesting  creatures  to  keep  alive  in 
aquaria,  where  their  transformations  can  be  watched, 
especially  if  collected  in  the  spring.  Little  is  known  re- 
garding their  habits,  and  any  one  who  can  spend  the  neces- 
sary time  and  patience  in  rearing  them,  so  as  to  trace  up 
the  different  stages  from  the  larva  to  the  dragon-fly,  and 
describe  and  accurately  figure  them,  will  do  good  service  to 
science.  When  about  to  cast  its  skin,  a  rent  opens  along 
the  back  of  the  thorax,  and  the  insect  having  fastened  its 
claws  into  some  object  at  the  bottom  of  the  pool,  it  gradu- 
ally works  its  ways  out  of  the  larva  skin.  When  about  to 
change  to  the  adult  fly,  the  pupa  climbs  up  some  plant  to 
near  the  surface  of  the  water,  its  back  then  yawns  apart,  and 
from  the  rent  the  dragon-fly  slowly  emerges.  For  an  hour 
or  more  it  remains  torpid  and  listless,  with  its  flabby,  soft 
wings  remaining  motionless.  The  fluids  leave  the  surface, 
the  wings  expand,  the  skin  hardens  and  dries,  the  colors 
appear,  and  the  dragon-fly  rises  into  the  air.  The  colors  of 
dragon-flies  are  very  striking,  consisting  of  rich  green,  blue, 
yellow,  vermilion  and  metallic  tints,  and  the  sexes  differ  in 
color.  Certain  dragon-flies  appear  to  be  attracted  by  par- 
ticular colors,  as  the  blue  males  of  an  Agrion  were  seen  to 
settle  in  numbers  on  the  blue  float  of  a  fishing-line.  The 
males,  in  several  genera,  when  they  first  emerge  froni  the 
pupa  are  colored  exactly  like  the  females;  but  in  a  short 
time  they  assume  a  conspicuous  milky-blue  tint,  OAving  to 
the  exudation  of  a  kind  of  oil,  soluble  in  ether  and  alcohol. 
Certain  species  of  Neurothemis  are  dimorphic,  some  females 
having  their  wings  netted  as  usual,  while  others  have  them 
richly  netted  as  in  the  males  of  the  same  species.  In  several 
species  of  Agrion  a  certain  number  of  individuals  are  of  an 
Orange  color.     (Darwin's  Descent  of  Man,  i-.  352.) 


MAT-FLIES. 


71 


Family  Libellulidse. — CaUypteryx  apicalis  Burm.,  Agrion  civile 
Hagen,  ^ISschna  heros  Fabr.,  Lihellula  trimaculata  De  Geer. 

Order  VI.  Piectoptera*  {Maij-flies). 

Like  the  dragon-flies,  the  Ephemerae  or  May-flies  are  in 
their  own  way  very  peculiar  insects,  and  cannot  be  placed 
in  any  of  the  older  established  orders.  We  have  therefore 
proposed  the  name  Piectoptera  for  the  group,  <* 

in  allusion    to    the  fine,  gauzy  network   of 
their  wings. 

The  adult  May-flies  are  characterized  by 
the  very  rudimentary  condition  of  the 
mouth-parts.  In  examining  the  under  side 
of  the  head  there  is  a  hollow,  with  only 
slight  rudiments  of  the  mandibles,  maxillse, 
and  labium.  As  these  insects  live  but  a  few 
hours,  only  long  enough  to  provide  for  the 
continuance  of  the  species,  they  need  to 
take  no  food,   hence  the    mouth-parts   are 


Fig.  57— Mayfly,  natural  siz'?.    a,  larva,  twice  enlarged. 

nearly  aborted,  and  the  antenuge  are  small  and  bristle-like. 


*  Selected  Works. 

Eaton,  A.  E.  A  revisional  monograph  of  recent  Ephemeridae  or  May- 
flies.    Parts  I. -IV.  (Trans.  Linn.  Soc,  London,  1883-85). 

Hagen,  H.  A.    Synopsis  of  the  Nenroptera  of  Nortli  America  (1861). 

Lubbock,  J.  Development  of  Chloeon  dimidiatum  (Trans.  Linn. 
Soc,  London,  xxiv.-v.,  1865-66). 

Packard,  A.  S.  (External  anatomy,  in  third  report  U.  S.  Entomolog. 
Commission,  1883,  pp.  333-335,  Pis.  XLV-XLVI). 

Swammerdam,  J.     Epliemerte  Vita  (Amsterdam,  1675). 

Vayssiere,  A  Recherches  sur  I'organization  des  larves  des  Ephe- 
meriues  (Ann.  Sc.  Nat.,  xiii.,  1883). 


72  ENTOMOLOGY. 

The  thorax  is  also  peculiar  iu  being  globular,  the  pro- 
thorax  is  small  and  collar-like,  while  the  mesothorax  is  very 
large,  and  the  metathorax  very  small.  The  wings  are  finely 
net-veined,  and  the  hinder  pair  are  very  small,  sometimes 
wanting.  The  abdomen  is  very  long  and  slender,  ending 
in  three  long,  jointed  stylets,  while  in  addition  there  are 
in  the  males  beneath  the  stylets  two  pairs  of  jointed  claspers, 
a  feature  peculiar  to  tliese  insects.  Moreover,  as  in  the 
Dermaptera,  the  genital  openings  of  both  sexes  are  double; 
in  all  other  insects  there  is  but  a  single  opening. 

But  if  the  May-fly  takes  no  food,  it  is  quite  otherwise 
with  the  larva  and  pupa.  Fig.  57,  a,  represents  the  larva  or 
nymph  of  Palingenia;  its  body  is  long  and  slender,  with 
long  slender  antennse,  while  the  jaws  are  very  large,  the 
creature  being  voracious  and  feeding  on  other  insects. 
Along  the  sides  of  the  hind  body  are  either  leaf-like  or 
bushy  tracheary  gills,  and  the  body  ends  in  long  hairy 
bristles. 

The  larvae  are  said  to  live  two  or  three  years,  residing  in 
burrows  in  the  mud,  under  stones,  or  among  grass  and 
weeds,  where  they  may  be  taken  with  the  water-net  in  great 
abundance,  and  are  beautiful  objects  for  the  aquarium. 
Some  of  the  group,  if  not  all,  differ  from  other  insects  in 
moulting  so  many  times;  thus  Chloeon  casts  its  skin 
twenty-one  times  before  it  assumes  the  imago  state.  In 
another  respect  the  May-flies  are  peculiar:  after  transform- 
ing from  the  nymph,  the  winged  insect,  called  the  snb- 
imago,  takes  a  short  flight,  and  then  casts  another  skin 
before  assuming  the  final,  imago,  state. 

May-flies  often  appear  in  immense  numbers,  and  falling 
into  the  water  become  stranded  in  windrows  along  the 
borders  of  lakes.  The  perfect -insects  should  be  preserved 
in  alcohol  for  study,  and  described  when  alive  if  possible, 
as  the  body  shrivels  up  and  the  colors  fade  when  pinned. 

Family  Ephemeridse.  Characters  of  the  order.  Potamanthus  mar- 
ginutus  Zett.  (Fig.  57),  Palingenia  bilineata  Say  (Fig.  57,  a,  nymph). 


OBDEB  fBTSANOPfEBA.  73 


Order  VII.  Thysanoptera.* 

Eepresented  by  the  little  group  of  which  Thrips  is  the 
type,  and  placed  by  some  among  the  Hemiptera,  to  which 
they  seem  closely  allied,  it  may  be  said  that  though 
the  head  ends  in  a  short  beak,  yet  these  insects 
differ  from  the  bugs  in  having  maxillae  bearing 
2-3-jointed  palpi,  while  the  labial  palpi  are  present, 
and,  though  very  short,  are  composed  of  from  two 
to  three  joints.  The  order  derives  its  name  from 
the  long  delicate  fringe  on  its  long,  narrow,  and 
often  veinless  wings.  In  some  species  the  wings 
are  wanting,  at  least  in  the  males.  The  abdomen, 
in  certain  species,  ends  in  the  males  by  a  slender 
joint,  and  in  the  females  by  a  4-valved  borer. 

The  eggs  are  somewhat  like  those  of  Hemiptera,  being 
cylindric,  round  at  one  end  and  crowned  with  a  knob  at  the 
other.  The  larva  and  pupa  are  both  active,  and  in  the 
rather  sluggish  pupa  the  antennae  are  turned  back  on  the 
head,  while  the  limbs  and  wings  are  enclosed  in  a  thin 
filmy  membrane;  the  feet  end  in  bulbous  enlargements, 
hence  the  name  "bladder-footed"  (Physapoda)  applied  to 
the  group  by  Burmeister. 

The  wheat  Thrips,  Limothrijjs  cerealium  Haliday,  is  in- 
jurious to  wheat;  Thrips  striatus  Osborn  (Fig.  58)  destroys 
onion-plants.  These  insects  injure  plants  by  puncturing 
and  killing  the  leaves;  all  the  species  are  minute,  and  little 
is  known  of  them  in  the  United  States. 

Family  Thripidse. — Characters  of  the  order  as  given  above. 

*  Selected  Works. 

Haliday,  A.  H.  An  epitome  of  the  British  genera  in  the  order  Thy- 
sanoptera (Entomological  Mag.,  iii.  439.     1836). 

Packard,  A.  S.  (Standard  Natural  History,  second  edit.,  1888;  also 
contains  a  list  of  de.scribed  N.  A.  species  by  Th.  Pergande.) 

Reuter,  0.  M.     Thysanoptera  Fennica.     (1880.) 

Uljanin,  W.  H.    Embryology  of  Physapoda  (Moscow.    In  Russian). 


74  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Order  VIII.  Hemiptera*  {Bikjs,  PJant-Uce,  etc.). 

While  the  preceding  groups  ure  of  limited  extent  as  regards 
number  of  species,  the  one  now  before  us  is  very  rich  in  this 
respect.  We  are  now  to  take  into  account  insects  which 
gain  their  livelihood  by  piercing  and  sucking 
the  sap  of  plants  or  the  blood  of  other  insects; 
and  the  change  in  the  jaws  by  which  a  sucking 
beak  is  formed  is  very  curious. 

One  can  obtain  an  excellent  idea  of  what  a 
bug  is  by  dissecting  a  common  squash-bug 
(Fig.  59).  With  a  lens  fixed  on  a  stand,  and  a 
FxG.  59.— Squash-  needle  mounted  in  a  handle,  the  student  can, 
bug.   Nat.  size.   ^^^^^,  ^  ^^^^  ^^.^^^^^  dissect  the  head  from  the 

body,   examine  the  beak,  the  wings;  separate   the  thorax 

*  Selected  Works. 

Amyot,  C,  and  Serville,  A.     Hemipteres  (Paris,  1843). 

Buckton,   G.  B.     Mouograpli  of  the  British  Aphides  (Ray  Soeietv. 
i.,  ii.     London,  1876-79). 

Comstock,  J.  H.      Report  of  U.  S.  Entomologist  (Dept.   Agr.)  for 
1879-1881  (Washington,  1880-82). 

Douglas  and  Scott.     British  Hemiptera.     I.  Heteroptera.     (Ray  So- 
ciety.    Loudon,  1865.) 

Fieber,  F.  X.     European  Hemiptera  (Vienna,  1861.)    (In  German.) 

Geise,  0.     Mimdtheile  der  Rhynchoten  (Archiv  f.  Naturg.,  xlix., 
315.     1883). 

Glover,  T.     Manuscript  Notes:  Hemiptera  (Washington,  1876). 

Oestlund,  0.  W.     Synopsis  of  the  Aphididoe  of  Minnesota  (St.  Paul, 
1887). 

Riley  and  Monell.      Notes  on  Aphidai  of  the  U.   S.      (Bull.  U.  S. 
Geol.  Surv..,  v.     Washington,  1879.) 

Thomas,  C.     Monograph  of  the  Plant-lice  (8th  Report  State  Ento- 
mologist of  111.,  1879). 

Uhler,  P.  R.     Monographs  of  Cydnidoe  and  Sald«  [etc.].     (Bull.  U. 
S.  Geol.  Surv.,  iii.,  1877). 

• Check-list  of  the  Hemiptera-Heteroptera  of  North  America  (Brook- 
lyn, 1886). 

Walker,  F.    Catalogue  of  Hemiptera-Heteroptera  in  British  Museum 
(8  vols   and  suppl.     1867-74). 

Witlaczil,    E.     Die  Anatomie  der  Psylliden      (Zeits.  f.  Wissensch. 
Zool.,  Bd.  xlii.     Wien,  1885). 

Zur  3[orphologie  und  Anatomie  der  Cocciden  (Zeits.  f.  Wis- 
sensch. Zool.     Wien,  1885). 
Also  the  writings   of  Ashmead,  Comstock,  Forbes,  Landois,  L« 

Baron,  Monell,  Osborn,  Riley,  Say,  Thomas,  etc. 


Fia.  60.— External  anatomy  of  squash-bug,  Anasa  tristis.  a,  upper,  b,  under 
and  c,  side,  view  of  head;  ant,  antenna;  oc.  ocellus;  d,  pro-,  e,  meso-,/,  meta- 
notum;  sc'.  meso  scutum;  scl.  meso-scutellum;  3,  pro-,  /i,  meso-,  t,  meta- 
pleurum;  st,  pro-,  st\  meso-,  st",  meta-scutum;  epis,  epis',  epis",  episternura 
of  pro-,  meso-,  and  meta-thorax;  em.  em',  em",  epimerum  of  pro-,  meso-,  and 
meta-thorax;  j,  fc,  I,  under  side  of  the  pro-,  meso-,  and  meta-thorax,-  ex", 
coxa;  ir",  trochanter;  /,  fe«iur;  t,  tibia;  ts.  tarsus;  m,  dorsal,  n,  ventral,  o. 
Bide,  view  of  abdomen;  sp',  sep",  six  pairs  of  spiracles.  (To  face  p.  74.) 


76 


JSNTOMOLOGT. 


into  its  separate  segments,  dissect  the  hind  hody  or  abdomen 
from  the  thorax,  and  study  tliese  parts  with  the  aid  of  Fig. 
60,  always  remembering  to  compare  each  part  with  its  corre- 
sponding part  in  the  grasshopper. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  bug  has, 
besides  a  pair  of  compound  eyes, 
two  simple  eyes  behind;  and  that 
it  takes  its  food  by  suction,  plung- 
ing its  long  slender  beak  into  the 
stems  of  plants  or  into  the  flesh 
of  its  victim.  This  beak  is  the 
distinctive  mark  of  the  bugs, 
which  thus  differ  from  other  in- 
sects in  their  manner  of  taking 
their  food.  It  is  formed  of  the 
long,  slender,  needle-like  mandibles 
and  maxillae,  which  are  united  so 
as  to  form  a  hollow  sucking-tube. 
The  tube  thus  formed  is  ensheathed 
by  the  under  lip  {lahium),  which  is 

Fig.    61.  —  Head    of    bed-bug,  i"in  i  jj»j; 

showing  the  structure  of  tlie  lOUg,  holloW,  and  COmpOSCd  of  lour 

Sm/ which  %o*nTai^s"the  joiuts.  Above,  the  suckiug-tube  is 
Sni'&v.^osrbSl"e  protected  by  the  labrum  (Figs.  61 
shown  by  the  dotted  lines  in  and  62,  Ibv).    Another  distinguish- 

the  head;    Ibr,  labrum;  ant,   ^  '      ^  '  ci         _ 

antenna.  ing  mark  is  that  bugs  have  no  palpi, 

either  maxiliary  or  labial. 

There  are  c-:timated  to  be  nearly  10,000  species  of  bugs 
in  North  America,  all  having  a  beak;  and  through  their 
different  kinds  of  food  and  habits  there  is  a  chance  for  the 
individuals  of  each  species  to  get  a  living. 

The  bugs  also  differ  from  other  insects,  and  somewhat 
anticipate  the  beetles,  in  the  large  broad  prothorax,  and 
in  the  fore  wings,  which  are  thickened  at  the  base  so  as  to 
protect  the  thin  under  pair.  Since  the  basal  half  of  the 
fore  wings  is  thus  thickened,  the  bugs  are  called  Hemiptera, 
from  henri,  half,  and  pteron,  wing. 

Like  the  grasshopper,  the  bugs  have  an  incomplete  meta- 


ORDER  HEMIPTERA. 


11 


morphosis.     Fig.  63  represents  the  transformations  of  the 
chinch-bug,  the  young  having  no  wings.     After  reaching 
f 


Fig.  62.— Longitudinal  section  of  bug's  head.  Ihr,  labrum;  Ih,  labium;  md, 
mandible;  mx,  maxilla;  sq,  salivary  gland  (the  arrows  pointing  outward 
show  the  course  of  the  salivary  duct  into  the  mouth;  the  inward-pointing 
arrows  indicate  the  throat  and  the  direction  taken  by  the  food  in  passing  to 
the  stomach);  I,  t,  x,  muscles  which  elevate  the  roof  of  the  mouth.— After 
Graber. 

the  stage  e,  the  wings  appear  as  in  the  stages/  and  g.  This 
bug  does  immense  harm  to  farmers  by  sucking  the  sap  of 
wheat  and  corn. 

Certain   species    of    Hemiptera  are  apterous;  the  sexes 


Fig.  63.— The  Chinch-bug  and  its  early  stages,  a,  b.  eggs;  c,  e,  larval  stages;  /,  g, 
pupae;  /,  beak;  d,  tarsus  of  larva;  j",  tarsus  of  perfect  bug;  h,  leg  of  ditto. 

differ  in  the  form  of  the  body  and  fore  wings,  in  the  second 
joints  of  their  antennae,  and  in  their  tarsi;  while  the  females 
are  generally  larger  and  more  robust  than  the  males,  but 
they  do  not  commonly  differ  much  in  color.  (Darwin's 
Descent  of  Man,  i.  339.) 


78  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Although  the  Hemiptera  are  not  so  numerous  in  species 
as  the  Coleoptera,  Diptera,  or  Hymenoptera,  the}'^  possibly 
outnumber  the  Lepidoptera.  Uhler  states  that  about 
27,000  species  occur  in  museums,  and  that  thexe  are  prob- 
ably not  less  than  50,000  species  now  existing.  The  known 
forms  are  distributed  in  very  nearly  the  following  propor- 
tions: South  America,  10,000;  Nortli  America,  5000;  Cen- 
tral America  and  the  West  Indies,  2000;  Europe,  3000; 
Asia  and  its  islands,  3000;  Africa  and  its  islands,  3000;  and 
Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  the  Philippines,  about  1000 
species. 

Suh-order  1.  Pediculina. — The  parasitic  Hemiptera  or 
lice  are  wingless  and  have  a  beak-like  sucker,  which  is  soft 
and  retractile,  with  two  j)rotrusible  chitinous  bristles.  The 
feet  are  adapted  for  clinging  to  hairs,  as  they  are  hooked, 
while  the  body  is  soft,  and  the  thoracic  segments  are  not 
divided  into  separate  pieces,  as  in  other  Hemiptera  and 
nearly  all  other  insects.  The  eggs,  called  "nits'"  (Fig.  30, 
r),  are  oval  and  attached  to  hairs.  All  the  species  live  on 
mammals,  none  on  birds. 

Though  evidently  allied  to  the  wingless  Cimex,  and  form- 
ing a  group  standing  near  it,  we  have,  as  a  matter  of  con- 
venience, to  place  them  at  the  bottom  of  the  entire  order  in 
a  sub-order  by  themselves,  interpolating  the  Homoptera 
between  them  and  the  Heteropterous  Hemiptera,  to  which 
they  more  nearly  belong.  Parasitism  has  so  degraded  them 
that  the  marks  of  relationship  to  their  true  ancestors  have 
been  effaced.  The  lice  may  be  said  to  be  a  downward-bent 
twig  of  the  Heteropterous  branch,  while  the  Homoptera 
form  the  highest  branch  of  the  ordinal  tree. 

Family  Pediculidae. — Pediculus  capitis  De  Geer,  the  head-louse  of 
man;  P.  vestimenU  ^nrm.  (larger  and  paler);  PhtJiirius pubis  (Linn.), 
the  crab-louse. 

Suh-order  2,  Homoptera. — In  Hemiptera  of  this  group 
the  wings  are  somewhat  opaque  throughout,  or  transparent, 
and  lie  roof-like  over  the  body.  The  head  is  large,  and  the 
beak  appears  to  arise  between  the  fore  legs.     Many  of  the 


TSE  BARK-LICE. 


79 


Species  are  hoppers,  the  hind  legs  being  enlarged,  while 

many  (except  the  plant  and  bark  lice)  have  an  ovipositor, 

for  inserting  eggs  in  the  twigs  of  plants.     Many  species 

secrete,  in  nnmerous  glands  in  the   skin,    a   white   waxy 

powder  which  covers  the  body. 

We  have  always  regarded,  and  still  regard,  the  typical 

Horaoptera,  snch  as  Cicada,  as  a  more  highly  specialized 

insect  than  any  of  the  Heteropterous  Hemiptera;  but  in 

treating  of  them  in  the  pages  of  a  book,  and  in  deference 

to  the  views  of  Hemipterists,  we  interpolate  the  snb-order 

between  the  Pediculina  and  Heteroptera. 

Family  Coccidae. — The  bark-lice  or  scale  insects  are  so  called  from 
the  habits  and  shape  of  the  females,  which  are  wingless,  with  bodies 
resembling  scales.  They  insert  their  long  slender  beak  into  the  bark 
of  trees  or  stems  and  leaves  of  plants,  drawing  in  the  sap,  and  when 


Fig.  64.— Cochineal  insect, 
male:  female,  natural  size 
and  eulargecl. 


Fig.  65.— Orange-scale  insect,    a,  male;  b, 
female;  d,  its  scale;  c,  another  species. 


very  numerous  do  much  harm  to  the  plant  or  tree.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  males  have  two  wings  and  a  pair  of  balancers,  but  no  beak, 
and  take  no  food.  The  females  lay  their  eggs  beneath  the  end  of 
their  bodies.  While  the  eggs  are  generally  fertilized,  in  species  of 
Lecanium  and  Aspidiotus,  they  develop  without  fertilization  by  the 
males.  Unlike  the  females,  the  males  undergo  a  metamorphosis,  the 
larvfe  spinning  a  cocoon;  the  pupa?  remaining  therein  without  moving 
or  taking  food.  While  most  of  the  species  are  injurious  to  vegetation, 
the  cochineal  Coccus  (Fig.  64)  produces  a  carmine  dye,  and  the  manna 
and  lac  insects  by  their  punctures  cause  a  flow  of  vegetable  juices, 
which,  when  dry,  are  a  valuable  article  of  merchandise. 

With  us  the  most  injurious  species  is  the  Apple  bark-louse,  Mytilas- 
pis  pomorinn  Bouche,  whose  scales  sometimes  so  abound  on  the  bark 
as  to  kill  young  trees;  oranges  are  injured  by  M.  glorerii  (Pack., 
Fig.  65),  and  the  purple  orange-scale,  J/.  citriro'la  (Pack.).  Plants  in 
hot-houses  are  often  injured  by  the  "  mealy  bug,"  Cocctis  (Ddcti/hplufi 
adonidmn  Tiinn.),  which  also  occurs  in  gardens,  as  does  fA't-dnium 
hesperidum,  which  especially  affects  the  orange.  Pulvinaria  in- 
numeraMUs  (Rathvon)  injures  the  linden  and  soft  maple. 


80  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Family  Aleyrodidae. — Wings  rounded,  rather  broad  and  white;  larvae 
scale-like  and  fixed  to  leaves;  beak  2-jointed.     Aleyrodes  corni  Hald. 

Family  Aphidse. — The  Aphides  or  plant-lice  abound  to  an  enormous 
extent;  nearly  every  plant  has  one  or  more  species  peculiar  to  it,  and 
the  individuals  are  often  to  be  numbered  by  millions;  while  a  thousand 
species  are  already  known.  The  males  and  females  are  usually 
winged;  in  rare  cases  are  the  males  wingless,  but  the  females  are  not 
seldom  without  wings,  while  the  asexual  individuals  are  wingless. 
They  are  all  small  insects,  both  sexes  with  a  3  jointed  beak;  the  wings 
have  few  veins;  the  body  is  flask-shaped,  and  in  the  species  of  Aphis 
and  Lachnus  near  the  end  of  the  abdomen  are  two  tubes  for  the  exit 
of  a  sweet  fluid  called  "  honey-dew,"  which  is  lapped  up  by  the  ants 
seen  frequenting  a  colony  of  these  insects.  Aphides  are  usually 
green,  with  a  soft  powdery  bloom  on  the  skin. 

The  Aphides  or  plant-lice  abound  by  reason  of  their  wonderful 
fertility,  the  young  being  brought  forth  alive.     There  are  as  many  as 


Fig.  66.— Apple  Aphis.    Natural  size  and  enlarged. 

nine  or  ten  generations;  a  single  Aphis  becoming  the  parent  in  one 
summer  of  millions  of  children  and  grandchildren.  Though  they  are 
devoured  in  enormous  numbers  by  other  insects  and  by  birds,  still 
hosts  are  left  to  prey  on  our  fruit-trees,  succulent  vegetables,  and 
household  plants.  Thus,  these  weak,  defenceless  creatures  owe  their 
success  in  life  to  their  unusual  powers  of  reproduction,  the  young 
budding  forth  within  the  parent,  as  the  polyp  sends  forth  bud  after 
bud  which  eventually  become  jelly-fish.  The  last  brood  of  Aphides 
lay  eggs  in  the  autumn  and  then  die. 

Sexual  forms  (at  time  of  birth  already  mature,  wingless,  and  with- 
out a  proboscis)  sometimes  occur  in  the  spring,  as  in  the  European 
Pemphigus  terebinthi  (Derb^s).  Chermes  and  Phylloxera  give  birth 
in  place  of  viviparous  generations  to  a  special  egg-laying  female, 
which  also  produces  eggs,  from  which  arise  individuals  which  repro- 
duce parthenogenetically.  In  Phyllo.rera  quercus,  besides  the  two 
generations,  there  is  another  generation  which  appears  in  autumn,  and 
consists  of  very  .small  males  and  females  (without  a  suctorial  proboscis 
or  alimentary  canal).  These  animals  arise  from  two  kinds  of  eggs 
which  are  laid  in  the  roots.  The  female  after  pairing  lays  only  a 
single  egg.  It  is  the  same  with  the  Phylloxera  of  the  vine  (Claus). 
Of  the  latter  there  are  two  forms,  one  living  in  galls  on  the  leaves,  and 
the  other  forming  small  swellings  on  the  roots.  The  root-form  is 
either  wingless  or  winged,  the  latter  very  rare.  The  leaf-form  is  said 
to  be  always  wingless. 


LEAF-HOPPERS. 


81 


Family  Psyllidae. — These  leaf-hoppers  commonly  live  in  all  stages 
on  tlie  under  surface  of  leaves,  some  of  them  forming  galls.     They 


Fig.  &7.—Fsylla  tripuncfata.— After  Riley, 
are  generally  conical,  with  a  broad  head,  with  long,  lO-jointed  an- 
tennae and  short  legs,  the  hinder  ones  adapted  for  springing ;  the 


^^^, 


l)  Fig.  68.— Seventeen-year  Cicada.  A,  larva ;  a,  pupa;  b,  its  cast  skin  split  alonj; 
the  back;  e,  eggs;  d,  gashes  made  for  them  in  a  twig.  All  except  A  natural 
size.— After  Riley. 

6 


82 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


I 


wings  are  thickened,  folded  roof-like  over  the  body,  while  the  young 
are  often  covered  with  a  white  cottony  mass.  Psylla  pi/ri  Schmidt 
injures  the  pear-tree;  and  P.  tripunctata  Fitch  is  common  on  pine- 
trees. 

^Family  Membracidae.— Head  broad,  prothorax  very  large  and  of 
varied  form,  being  arched,  compressed,  hump-backed,  conical,  etc., 
in  different  species,,  aiid  often  with  spines  and  projections.  <<M.em- 
bracisfoliata  (Lmn.)-Pl''el(i'mona  monticola  (Fabr.). 
<^  Family  Cicadidse. — The  Cicadse  are  among  the  largest  of  insects, 
and  besides  their  broad  heads,  prominent  eyes,  and  well-developed 
ovipositor,  have,  in  the  males,  a  musical  apparatus  at  the  base  of 
the  abdomen,  by  which  they  produce  a  loud,  shrill,  piercing  noise. 
The  family  also  comprises  the  longest-lived  of  all  insects,  the  17- 
year  Cicada^C  17-decim  Linn.)  requiring  seventeen  years  to  attain 
its  growth.  A  single  brood  appears  only  once  in  seventeen  years  in 
the  same  given  region,  while  there  are  three  broods  which  appear 
once  in  thirteen  years. 

^Family  Fulgoridae. — Antennae  yith  only  three  joints;  the  forehead 
or  vertex  euormoiisly  enlarged.  ^ Later naria  plwsplioi'ea  (Linn.), 
Surinam  and  'S>xxiTA\.,  Fulgora  candelarui  (Linn.),  the  lantern-fly  of 
China,  are  both  among  the  largest  of  insects.^^ative  forms  of  much 
smaller  size  {ii^Oiiocerus  coquehertii  Kirby  anO'VelpIiax  arvensis  Fitch . 
rt  Family  Cercopidae. — A  large  group  of  insects  of  medium  or  small 
size,  living  in  grass  and  on  leaves;  with  a  large  broad  thorax. 
"Frog's  spittle"  m^^cxpptyehis  lineatus  (Linn.). 


o 


Fig.  &i.—Ptyehi.s  lineatus.    Spittle  insect,    a,  larva,  enlarged;  b,  its  natural 
size;  above  it  the  mass  of  froth  or  "spittle." 
Family  Jassidse. — Slenderer  insects  than  the  Cercopida',  and  with 
longer  hind  Iggs,  but  like  them  living  in  grass  and  treeay^Erythroneurd 
vitis  (RarTisfi'I)iedrocephala  moUipes  (Say). 

Sub-order  3.  Heteroptera.7— The  wings  are  in  the  true 
btigs  laid  flat  on  the  back,  those  of  the  fore  pair  thick- 
ened on  the  basal  half  or  two-thirds  (hemelytra) ;  the  pro- 
thorax  is  large  and  broad.  Many  species  give  out  an  offen- 
sive smellj  due  to  a  secretion  emitted  from  a  gland  situated 


WATER-BUGS,  ETC. 


83 


in  the  meso-  or  metathorax,  and,  if  in  the  latter  place, 
opening  between  the  hind  legs.  Many  are  wingless,  and  in 
some  species  the  females  are  wingless.  The  definition  of  the 
families,  and  their  arrangement,  are  taken  from  P.  R.  Uhler's 
account  of  the  Hemiptera  in  ''The  Standard  Natural 
History." 

Family  Corisidae. — Aquatic  insects,  with  broad  heads,  flattened 
bodies,  and  swimming  feet,  the  beak  passing  through  a  little  hole 
above  the  actual  end  of  the  clypeus.     Gorisa  interrupta  Say. 

Family  Notonectidae. — Boat-shaped,  aquatic  forms,  diflEering  from 
all  other  Hemiptera  by  swimming  on  their  backs.    Notonecta 
undulaia  Say. 

Family  Nepidae. — Flat-bodied  aquatic  insects,  the  body 
often  ending  in  two  respiratory  tubes.  Voracious  and,  as  in 
Belostoma  grisea  (Say),  destructive  to  fishes  and  tadpoles 
from  its  large  size  and  powerful  beak. 

Family  Naucoridae. ^Flat-bodied,  oval,  without  caudal 
tubes.     Pelocoris  femordta  (Pal.  Beauv.). 

Family  Galgulidae. ^Insects  living  by  the  edge  of  ponds 
and  streams,  with  the  hind  legs  adapted  for  running.  Gal- 
gulus  oculatus  Fabr. 

Family  Saldidae. — Small,  leaping,  dull-colored  insects, 
with  the  head  free.     Salda  signoretii  Guerin. 

Family  Hydrobatidae. — The  water-boatmen  have  long 
limbs,  wherry- like  l)0(lies,  and  row  themselves  on  the  surface 
of  the  water.  G  err  is  (Hygrotrechus)  remigis  Say;  Halobates 
Wuellerstorfii  White  lives  on  the  ocean  far  from  land. 

Family  Veliidae. — Body  short  and  deep,  with  short  legs. 
velia  obesa  Uhler. 

Family  Hydrometridae. — Dull  brown  insects  of  linear  shape,  with 
long  legs  fitted-  for  walking  on  the  sur- 
face of  pools  and  brooks.    Ilydrometra 
Uneata  Say 

Family  Emesidae. — Body  extremely 
slender,  with  thread-like  middle  and 

hind  legs,  but  with  spinous,  raptorial  i?'^>^^^Sfe'.>*seSt  f      1NS\ 

fore  legs.     Emesa  longijjes  De  Geer. 

Family  Reduviidae.  — Body  thick, 
with  short  coxa;,  the  fore  legs  set  far 
back.  Conoi'hifius  sanguisiigus  hec,  a 
large  red-spotted  bug,  which  inflicts  a 
severe  puncture.     Milyas  cinctns  Fabr.  a  ^        ft 

Family  Nabidae. — Body  obloug,  with  '^ 

a  thick  head  ending  in  a  long  slender  Fig.  71 
beak.      Nabis  fusca    Stein  ;     Coriscus 
ferus  Linn. 

Family  Aradidae. — Body  very  flat,  dead-leaf-brown  color. 
crenatus  Sa)^ 

Family  Phymatidae.— Body  thicker;  forelegs  raptorial.  Phymata 
erosa  Il^'rr-Scli. 

Family  Tingitidae.— Small,  very  flat  bugs  living  on  leaves.     Cm'y- 


Rhago- 


Milyas  cinctus.  b,  beak. 
— After  Riley. 


Aradus 


84  ENTOMOLOGY. 

thtica  ciliata  (Say),  common  on  oak-leaves.     Tingis 
clavata  Stal. 

f-,,   , .  Family  Cimicidae. — Body  broad  and  flat,  species 

^^/'^[^^j^^v     sometimes  wingless.     Cimex  lectularia  Linn.,  bed- 
/dlI-\  bug. 

Family  Capsidae. — Body  oval;  antennae  thread- 
like, long,  and  4-jointed;  the  end  of  the  thick 
part  of  the  hemelytra  triangular,  and  incised  out- 
side. Pcecildcapsus  linentus  (Fabr.). 
Fig.  72.— Bed-bug.  Family  Pyrrhocoridae.— Body  stouter  and  larger 
than  in  theCapsidee.  Dysdercus  sutui'ellus  Herr-Sch.,  cotton-stainer. 
Family  Lygaeidae. — Body  ovate  or  oblong  ;  head  with  a  pair  of  dis- 
tinct ocelli  between  the  eyes  ;  mostly  red  and  black  or  black  and 
yellow  insects.  Lyg<nis  fasciatus  Dallas,  Blissus  lencopterus  (Say), 
chinch-bug. 

Family  Berytidse. — Body  very  slender,  wath  pointed  head;  and 
thread-like  autcnuse,  clubbed  at  tip.     Neides  spinosus  Say. 
Family   Coreidae — Body  oblong-ovate;   antennae  4-joiuted  ;  basal 
joint  of  the  beak  usually  the  longest.     Anasa 
trMu  (De  Gcer),  scjuash-bug. 

Family  Pentatomidae. — Scutellum  large,  tri- 
angular; head  mostly  quadrangular ;  antennae 
5-jointed. 

Family  Cydnidae. — Oval,  highly-polished,  jet- 
black  insects,  having  flat  heads  with  the  edge 
turned  up,  and  the  legs  very  spinous.    Pangmus 
^  hilineatus  Say. 

Fig.  riZ.—Podisus  spi-  Family  Corimelaenidae. — Body  hemispherical, 
ural**'  si'ze^— 'Affer  Wack;  legs  spinous,  fitted  for  digging.  Cori- 
Riley.        '  melama  atra  (Am.  and  Serv.). 

Family  Scutelleridae. — Body  tortoise-shaped,  the  scutellum  cover- 
ing nearly  the  whole  upper  surface  of  the  abdomen.  Pachycoris 
torridus  d)COY>.     Fla.,  Mex. 

Family  Arthropteridae.— Body  wide  and  flat,  black,  highly  polished. 
Coptosoma  globus  {Y-Ahv.).     Eur.  [»*»!»-«.; 

Ordee  IX.  Neuroptera*  {Ant-lions,   Aphis-lions,  Lace- 
winged  Flies,  etc.). 
These  are  net-veined  insects,  with  a  metamorphosis,  but 

*  Selected  Works. 
Brauer,  F.     Beitrilge  zur  Kenntniss  der  Verwandlung  der  Neurop- 

tcren  (Verb.  Zool.  bot.  Ges. ,  Wien,  iv.,  v.). 
Heber  die  Verwandlung  des  Bittacus  italicus  und  Jm genii  (Yerh. 

Zool.  bot.  Ges.,  Wien,  1871). 
Hagen,  H.     Synopsis  of  the  Neuroptera  of  North  America  (1861. 

Smithsonian  Institution). 
Haldeman,  S.  S  ,  and  J.  Leidy.     History  and  transformations  of  Cory- 

dalis  cornutus  (Mem.  Amer.  Acad.  Arts  and  Sc,  iv..  1848). 
Packard,  A.  S.  (External  anatomy,  in  third  report  U.  S.  Eut.  Comm. 

188;i  835,  Pis.  Ll-LVIIl.  LXIV) 

Also  the  writings  of  Erichson,  Fitch,  McLachlan,  Pictet,  Ram- 
bur,  Riley,  Schneider,  and  Westwood. 


ORDER  NEUROPTERA. 


85 


they  also  differ  in  important  respects  from  net- veined  insects 
without  a  complete  metamorphosis.  The  head  is  horizon- 
tal and  somewhat  flattened;  the  body  is  flattened  or  cylin- 
drical. The  mouth-parts  are  free,  adapted  for  biting,  and 
the  mandibles  well  developed.  The  ligula  differs  from 
that  of  the  other  net- veined  insects  in  being  entire,  form- 


FiGS.  74,  75.— Larva  and  pupa  (6)  of  Corydalis  cornutus.     Natural  size. 

ing  a  large,  broad,  flat,  rounded  lobe.  The  prothorax  is 
large,  broad,  and  square,  and  the  mesothorax  and  meta- 
thorax  are  nearly  of  the  same  size,  while  the  wings  corre- 
spond in  being  all  of  the  same  size;  they  are  not  so  decidedly 
net-veined  as  in  the  Orthoptera,  Platyptera,  Odonata,  and 
Plectoptera,  the  costal  space  being  wide,  while  the  trans- 


86 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


verse  veinlets  are  few  ana  far  ajiart  compared  with  those 
of  the  dragon-  and  may-flies,  or  the  Orthoptera.  Only 
Kaphidia  has  an  ovipositor,  and  there  are  no  caudal  stylets. 


Fig.  76.— Imago  of  Conjdalis  cornutus;  male.    Natural  size. 

The  Neuroptera  have  a  complete  metamorphosis,  the  pupa 
being  quite  unlike  the  larva,  and  quiescent,  being  often  pro- 
tected by  a  cocoon.  The  shajje  of  the  larva  is  peculiar,  the 
body  being  broad,  somewhat  flattened,  with  large  jaws,  and 
of  rather  a  primitive  form,  compared  with  those  of  the 
following  orders. 


APHIS-  AND  ANT-LIONS. 


87 


Famil.v  Sialidae. — Body  somewhat  liatteucd,  of  moderate  length; 
the  anteume  loug  aud  slender,  sometimes  serrated  or  pectinated; 
the  wings  are  large,  net-veined,  the  hinder  pair  with  the  anal  space 
folded,  while  the  tarsi  are  5- jointed. 

To  this  family  belongs  the  great  Corydnlis  cornutus  Linn.,  whose 
wings  expand  six  inches.  The  jaws  of  the  male  are  enormously 
enlarged,  being  nearl}'^  an  inch  long,  and  can  scarcely  be  used  for 
taking  food.  Its  larva  lives  under  stones  in  brooks,  and  is  used  for 
bait  under  the  name  of  "  hellgrammite. "  In  Ghauliodes'pecUmcornis 
Linn.,  a  much  smaller  insect,  the  antennae  are  pectinated.  Species 
of  Raphidia,  which  have  a  very  long  narrow  prothorax,  inhabit  the 
Pacitic  coast. 

Family  Hemerobidae. — ^The  body  is  slender,  cylindrical,  with  large 
net- veined  wings,  the  hinder  ones  with  no  anal  space.  The  larvae 
are  peculiar  in  having  large  sickle-shaped  mandibles  which  have  a 
groove  beneath,  in  which  the  maxillai  slide  back  and  forth;  with 
these  they  can  pierce  the  bodies  of  small  insects  aud  suck  their 


Fig.  77.—  Lace-wing  fly,  side  and  top  view ;  eggs  aad  larva.    Enlarged  twice. 

blood,  without  moving  the  mandibles  on  which  the  victim  is  im- 
paled. The  larvtB  of  Chrysopa  (Fig.  77)  and  Hemerobia  are  called 
Aphis-lions,  and  destroy  great  numbers  of  those  pests.  The  ant-lion 
is  the  larva  of  Myrmeleoa.     It  makes  a  pit  in  fine  sand,  lying  at  the 


Fig.  78.— Myrmeleon,  and  a,  its  larva,  the  ant-lion. 

bottom  with  its  jaws  wide  open,  ready  to  seize  any  luckless  insect 
which  may  fall  in.  Mantispa  (Figs.  79,  80)  is  noteworthy  from  the 
strange  habits  of  its  larva,  which  passes  through  two  stages,  the 


88 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


first  of  the  normal  form  of  the  order,  when  it  lives  iu  the  cocoonsof 
spiders;  before  the  first  moult  it  loses  the  use  of  its  feet,  and  begins 


Fig.  79. 


Fig.  80. 


Fig.  80a. 


Fig.  79. — Mantispa  interrupta  Say;  and  side  view  of  the  same  without  wings. 

Natural  size. — Emerton  del. 
Fig.  80.— Freshly-hatched  larva  of  Mantispa  styriaca,  enlarged. 
Fig.  80a.— Larva  of  the  same,  but  older,  before  the  first  moult.    Enlarged.— 

After  Brauer. 

to  change  its  form,  until  when  fully  grown  it  is  cylindrical,  with 
small  feet  and  a  small  round  head,  much  as  in  caterpillars. 

Oeder  X.   Mecopteea.*  {Scorpion-flies). 

We  have  given  this  name  to  the  Panorpidse,  which  have 
features  separating  them  from  the  true  Neuroptera.  The 
front  of  the  head  is  greatly  elongated  into  a  sort  of  beak, 
the  clypeus  being  very  long,  and  the  minute  mandibles  are 
situated  at  the  end  of  the  snout.  The  prothorax  is  very 
small;  and  in  the  shape  of  the  thorax  as  a  whole,  and  in 

*  Selected  Works. 

Brauer,  F.     See  Neuroptera. 

Hagen,  H.  A.     Synop.sis  of  N.  A.  Neuroptera. 

Packard,  A.  S.  (External  anatomy,  in  third  report  U.  S.  Entom.  Com- 
mission, 1883,  342,  PI.  LIX,  LX). 

Westwood,  J.  0.  Monograph  of  the  genus  Panorpa  (Trans.  Ent. 
Soc.  London,  iv.,  1846). 


ORDER  MECAPTERA. 


89 


the  form  of  the  side  and  breast  pieces  (pleurites  and  ster- 

nites),  we  have  a  striking  approximation  to  tlie  moths.    The 

abdomen  is  long  and  slender,  composed  of  ten  segments, 

and  in  the  male  ending  in  a  large  forceps.     The  larva  is 

caterpillar-like,  the  head  small,  the  feet  short  and  small, 

and  there  are  eight  pairs  of  abdominal  feet,  while  the  body 

is  adorned  with  button-like,  bristle-bearing  warts  or  spines. 

The  metamorphoses  are  complete,  the  pup^  being  somewhat 

like  those  of  the  lowest  moths,  the  limbs  being  free. 

Family  Panorpidae. — With  the  characters  of  the  order.  lu  Pauorpa 
the  body  of  the  male  ends  iu  a  forceps.  It  has  been  known  to 
attack  fishes,  piercing  their  eyes  with  its  beak.  Its  larva  bores  an 
inch  deep  into  moss-covered  soil.  The  short,  4- jointed  thoracic  feet 
resemble  those  of  caterpillars;  but  the  most  striking  point  of  resem- 
blance to  the  latter  is  seen  in  the  eight  pairs  of  abdominal  feet.  Not 
only  the  form  of  the  body  and  legs,  but  also  the  arrangement  and 
shape  of  the  button-like,  bristle-bearing  warts  on  the  body  recall  the 
general  appearance  of  arctian  caterpillars.  Bittacus  has  a  very  long 
slender  body,  with  long  legs,  and  the  male  abdomen  bears  no  forceps. 
The  larva  is  somewhat  like  that  of  Panorpa,  but  is  adorned  with 


Fig.  81.— Panorpa  or  Scorpion-fly,  and  larva, 
long  scattered  dorsal  spines,  and  a  lateral  row  of  slender  filaments; 
each  of  the  nine  abdominal  segments  bears  a  pair  of  soft,  2- jointed 
feet.  While  the  Lepidoptera  are  supposed  to  have  originated  from 
the  same  ancestors  as  the  Trichoptera,  it  is  a  significant  fact  that  the 
eruciform  larvae  of  the  M{>coplera  actually  have  2- jointed  legs  to 
each  abdominal  segment.  This  suggests  that  the  Lepidoptera  may 
have  originated  from  the  same  stem-form  as  the  Mccoptera;  though  it 
should  be  remarked  that  the  moths  themselves  more  closely  resemble 
the  caddis-flies.  A  very  rare  and  singular  form  is  Merope  tuber 
Newman,  the  male  abdomen  bearing  a  large  forceps.  The  female 
Boreus  is  wingless;  iu  the  male  the  wings  are  rudimentary.  B. 
nivoriundus  Fitch  has  only  been  collected  in  the  winter-time  on 
snow.  The  species  are  brassy  brown,  brassy  black,  or  deep  bronze 
green. 


90 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Order  XL    Trichoptera*  {Caddis-flies). 

The  caddis-flies  bear  a  still  closer  resemblance  to  the  smalL 
er  moths  than  Panorpa,  though  the  larvffi  are  less  like  cat- 
erpillars tlian  those  of  the  Mecaptera.  The  caddis-flies 
have  a  small,  rounded  head  which  in  its  general  structure, 
though  presenting  some  notable  differences,  closely  resem- 
bles that  of  the  smaller  moths,  even  to  the  obsolete  mandi- 
bles, these  insects  taking  no  solid  food  in  the  imago  state. 
Ilagen  states  that  in  Plectrotarsus  gravenhorstii  the  pro- 
boscis is  greatly  developed,  and  in  certain  other  genera 
is  longer  than  the  head  and  fitted  to  probe  flowers,  (In  the 
(Est7'opsidm  the  maxillge  and  labium  become  aborted  dur- 


FiG.  83.— Caddis-fly  (enlarged  and  natural  size)  and  case-worm,    a,  case. 

ing  the  pupa  state. )  The  thorax  is  throughout  much  like 
that  of  the  smaller  moths,  the  prothorax  being  small  and 
collar-like;    the    metanotum  formed  on  the  lepidopterous 

*  Selected  Works. 

Hagen,  H.  A.     Synopsis  of  N.  A.  Neuroptera. 

McLachlan,  R.     A  monographic  revision  and  synopsis  of  the  Trichoptera 

of  the  European  fauna  (London,  1874-1880). 
Muller,  F.     Ueber  die  von  den  Trichopterenlarven  der  Provinz  Santa 

Catliarina  verfertigten  Gcbiiuse  (Zeits.  f.  Wisson.  Zool.,  xxxv.,  1880). 
Packard,  A.  S.    (External  anatomy,  in  third  report  U.  S.  Ent.  Comm., 

1883.  344,  Pis.  LIX,  LXI). 


CADDIS-FLIES.  91 

type,  as  is  tlie  rest  of  the  thorax,  especially  the  coxge  and 
side-pieces  (pleurites) ;  while  the  long,  slender  abdomen  re- 
calls the  shape  of  that  of  moths.  Moreover,  the  body  and 
wings,  usually  hairy,  are  sometimes  covered  with  scales;  and 
the  venation  is  somewhat  as  in  moths. 

The  transformations  are  much  as  in  those  of  the  lower 
moths,  though  in  the  pupa  the  limbs  are  free,  not  soldered 
to  the  body  as  in  moths.  The  larvae,  which  breathe  by 
means  of  thread-like  tracheal  gills,  construct  cases  of  bits 
of  sticks,  or  grains  of  sand,  which  they  drag  over  the  bot- 
tom of  quiet  pools  ;  they  live  both  on  decaying  leaves  and 
small  insects,  water-fleas,  etc.  When  about  to  pupate  they 
close  the  mouth  of  the  case  with  a  grating,  or,  as  in  Helico- 
psyche,  with  a  dense  silken  lid  having  a  single  slit,  and  in 
some  instances  spin  a  slight,  thin,  silken  cocoon,  within 
which  the  pupa  state  is  passed.  The  female  lays  her  eggs  in 
clumps  covered  with  jelly  on  stones  and  leaves  at  the  water's 
edge. 

Super-family  Phryganidae. — This  great  group  is  divided  by  McLach- 
lan  into  seven  families,  chiefly  according  to  the  structure  of  the  max- 
illary palpi,  as  follows:  Hydroptilidte,  RhyacopMlidij' ,  Hydropsy chidce, 
Leptoceridm,  Sericostomaiidif,  Limnophilidm,  and  Phryganid(E.  "  In 
the  Bhyacophilid/f  and  HydropsycMdm  the  larvae  inhabit  fixed  cases;  in 
the  others  the  cases  are  free,  and  carried  about  by  the  inmates.  In  the 
Bhyacophilidm  the  pupa  is  enveloped  in  a  special  cocoon."  (McLach- 
lan.) 

Order  XII.  Coleoptera*  {Beetles). 

Although  so  numerous  in  species,  upwards  of  100,000 

*  Selected  Works. 

Dejean  et  Aube.    Species  generales  de  Coleopteres  (6  vols.,  8vo.  Paris, 
1825-38). 

Gemminger  and  Harold.     Catalogue  of  all  described  Coleoptera  with 
synonyma  (12  vols.     Munich,  1868-76).     (Lat.) 

Henshaw,  S.     List  of  the  Coleoptera  of  North  America.     1885.     Supple- 
ment, pp.  8.     1887. 

The  entomological  writings  of  John  L.  LeConte  (Cambridge, 

1878). 

The  entomological  writings  of  George  H.  Horn  (Cambridge, 

1879). 

Horn,  G.   H.     Revision    of  North   American  Tenebrionidse  (Trans. 
Am.  Phil.  Soc,  1870). 

Synopsis  of  Parnidae  (Trans.  Am.  Ent.  Soc,  ii.,  1870). 

{Continued  on  next  page.) 


92  ENTOMOLOGY. 

existing  in  museums,  tlie  beetles  are  so  different  from  all 
other  insects  tliat.  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  the  two 
families  iSfi/hpidcB  and  PlatypsyUidw,  no  one  would  con- 
found them  with  the  members  of  any  other  order.  Beetles 
differ  from  other  insects  in  the  nature  of  the  fore  wings, 
which  are  usually  thick  and  solid,  generally  without  dis- 
tinct veins,  and  serve  as  sheatlis  {elytra)  to  protect  that 
part  of  the  body  situated  behind  the  prothorax,  which  is 
large,  broad,  and  moves  freely  on  the  rest  of  the  thorax: 
while  the  mouth-parts  are  free  and  ada])ted  for  biting. 

In  order  to  learn  the  names  of  the  different  parts,  the 
beginner  should  have  specimens  of  a  ground-beetle  and  of  a 
may-beetle,  and  compare  them  with  Figs.  83  and  84.  This 
will  save  pages  of  dry  description.  How  the  antennje  vary 
in  form  in  different  beetles  may  be  seen  by  reference  to  Fig. 
85, while  Fig.  86  represents  the  different  forms  of  eyes.  The 
Jaws  vary  much  in  shape,  while  perhaps  the  extreme  of 
variation  in  the  maxilla?  is  seen  in  many  sj)ecies  of  Nemog- 
natha,  in  which  the  outer  lobe  is  generally  prolonged  into 

Horn,  G.  H.     Descriptive  catalogue  of  species  of  Nebria  and  Pelophila 

(Trans.  Am.  Ent.  Soc,  ii.,  1870). 
Synopsis  of  Malachidae  of  U.  S.   (Trans.  Am.  Ent.  Soc,  iv., 

1872). 

Brenthida?  of  U.  S.  (Trans   Am.  Ent.  Soc,  iv.,  1872). 

Revision  of  species  of  Lebia  (Trans.  Am.  Ent.  Soc,  iv.,  1872). 

A  monograph  of  the  species  of  Chiysobothris  inhabiting  the 

United  States  (Trans.  Am.  Ent.  Soc,  xiii",  1886). 
A  monograph  of  the   Aphodiini  inhabiting  the   United   States 

(Trans.  Am.  Ent.  Soc,  xiv.,  1887). 
Lacordaire,  J.  T.,  et  Chapuis.  Genera  des  Coleopteres  (i.-vii.  Paris,  1854). 
leConte,  J.  L.,  and  G.  H.  Horn.     The  Rhychophora  of  America  north  of 

Mexico  (Proc   Am.  Phil.  Soc,  1876l. 
Classification  of  the  Coleoptera  of  North  America  (Smithsonian 

Inst.,  1883). 
Schaupp,  F.  G.    Synopsis  of  the  Cicindelidae  of  the  U.  S.    (Bull.  Ent. 

Soc,  Brooklyn,  ^^. ,  1884.    Five  plates  ;  every  species  with  a  colored 

figure,  on  four  plates.) 
Stal,  C.     Monograph  of  American  Chrysomelidse  (Upsala,  1862-5). 

Also  articles  by  Austin,  Blancbard, Casey,  Fitch,  Fuchs,  HaiTis,  Hub- 
bard, Matthews,  Melsheimer,  Randall,  Say,  Schwarz,  J.  B.  Smith, 
Ulke,  Ziegler,  Zimmerraann,  and  others  in  Trans.  Am.  Ent.  Soc. 
Phil.;  Bull.  Brooklyn  Ent.  Soc;  Entomologica  Americana;  Can. 
Entomologist,  etc. 


93 


No.  1 


Fio.  83.— Under  surface  of  Hctrpalus  caliginosits.  No.  1:  .4,  antenna:  B.  man- 
dible: C,  labruin;  D.  ligula;  E,  paraglossff:  F.  labial  palpus:  (?,  maxilla 
inner  lobe;  H,  outer  lobe:  /.  maxillaiy  palpus:  A',  mentum:  L,  gense;  M.  gula 
with  the  gular  sutures:  ^V,  buccal  fissure;  V.  ventral  segments:  1,  prester- 
num ;  2.  prostei-nal  episternnm ;  3.  prosternal  epinierum :  4,  cosal  cavitj-,  closed 
behind:  5,  inflfxed  side  of  pronotum:  6,  inesosternuMi;  7.  mesosternal  epis- 
ternum:  8.  mesosternal  epinierum;  9.  metasternum:  10,  antecoxal  piece;  11. 
metasternal  episteruum;  Vi.  metasteriial  epimeruni:  Vi,  iiitlexed  side  of 
elytrum;  1-1,  ambulatorial  setge:  1.5,  trochanters;  16,  posterior  coxae;  IT, 
femora:  18,  tibiae;  19.  tarsi.  No.  2:  under  side  of  i>rothorax  of  Hydroscapha, 
with  open  coxal  cavities,  and  Ti\  trochantin.  No.  3:  under  side  of  Calosoma. 
No.  4:  under  side  of  Rhyssodes.  No.  5:  under  side  of  Eusatttis  erosus.  show- 
ing the  true  epipleura.\Ep.  No.  6:  under  side  of  Cnemidotus.  showing  the 
large  coxal  plates.  PL  No.  7:  under  side  of  prothoraxof  Rhynchophorus,  show- 
ipg  tbe  closure  of  the  co-xal  cavities  by  the  epimera.,  -After  LieConte  and  Horii. 


c^^ 


I 

^ 

.      •        D 

V 

t 

3 

r 

"                  I 

\\    '  ■ 

W       '      H 

Fig.  84.— External  anatomy  of  May-beetle,  Lnchnosternn  fusca.  a,  upper  side 
of  head;  epic,  epicranium;  cl.  clypeus:  b,  under  side;  m,  int-utnm;  sm,  sub- 
mentum;  ?a6.  labium;  md,  mandible:  f,  v)i"onotum ;  rf,  mesonotiim;  e,  meta- 
notum;  /,  pro-,  g.  meso-,  /;,  meta-pleurum;  i,  pro-,  j.  meso-,  A:,  meta-pleurum; 
I,  dorsal,  wi,  ventral,  7i,  side,  view  of  abdomen:  1-7,  seven  basal  abdominal 
segments;  psc",  post-scutellum ;  otlier  letters  as  in  Fig.  60.   {To  face  page  95.) 


ORDER  COLEOPTERA. 


95 


a  slender,  flexible,  hairy  process,  sometimes  nearly  as  long  as 
the  body,  and  resembling  the  tongue  of  a  bee,  as  when  op- 
posed they  form  a  rude  kind  of  tube.  The  legs  vary  great- 
ly in  shape,  and   the  tarsi  vary  from  five,  the  normal  num- 


FiG.  85.— Different  forms  of  antenna?  of  beetles.  1,  serrate  ;  2,  pectinate  ;  .3, 
capitate  (and  also  geniculate)  ;  4-7.  clavate;  8,  9,  lamellate  ;  10,  serrate  (Dor- 
catoma);  11,  irregular  (Gyrinus,';  12,  two  jointed  antenna  of  Adranes  cajcus. — 
After  LeConte. 

ber,  to  four  and  three  joints,  and  sometimes  to  two  or  one, 
and  may  even  occasionally  be  wanting. 

The  larva  of  a  beetle,  especi:illy  those  like  the  young  may- 
beetle,  is  called  a  grub.     The  metamorphosis  is  in  beetles 
abed  e  f 


Fig.  86.— Head  and  ej'es  of  beetles,  a,  Calosoma  ,•  ft,  Chrysobothris;  c,  Prio- 
nus;  d,  Polygraphus;  e.Geotrupes;  /,  Gyrinus,  in  which  the  eyes  are  divided. 
—From  Judeicli  and  Nitsche. 

perfect.  Those  larvge  which  walk  freely  about  after  their 
food  usually  have  the  body  somewhat  flattened,  and  the  legs 
long;  while  those  which  bore  into  fruits  or  into  wood  have 
cylindrical,  white  bodies,  and  the  legs  are  usually  short,  or, 
as  in  the  larvfe  of  weevils,  etc.,  they  are  legless. 

The  pupge  of  beetles  are  usually  whitish,  and  have  free 
limbs.  They  are  either  enclosed  in  cocoons  of  silk  (Curcu- 
liouidfe  and  Chrysomelidsp)  or  form  a  rude  one  of  earth  ;  or, 


96 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


if  wood-borers,  live  in  rude  cocoons  of  fine  chips  and  dust, 
united  by  silken  threads  or  a  glutinous  matter.  Some  Coc- 
cinellae  and  Anthrenus  transform  within  the  old  larval 
skin.     In  most  Coleopterous  pupge,  the  antennse  lie  on  eacl) 


Fig.  87.— Onthophagus  rangifer.    A,  male;  B,  female.— From  Danvin. 

side  of  tlie  clypeus,  and  the  mandibles,  maxillae,  and  palpi 
appear  as  elongated  tubercles.  The  wings  are  small  and 
laid  upon  the  posterior  thighs,  thus  exposing  the  meso-  and 


Fig.  SS.^Chalcosotna  atlas.    Upper  figure  male,  reduced;  lower  figure  female 
natural  size.— From  Darwiu. 

metathorax  to  view.  The  tarsal  joints  lie  parallel  on  eacli 
side  of  the  middle  line  of  the  body,  and  in  those  pupa^ 
which  transform  in  the  soil  the  abdomen  ends  in  a  pair  of 
horny  hooks,  which  aid  the  pupa  in  reaching  the  surface. 


ORDER  COLEOPTERA. 


97 


Many  male  beetles  (especially  Lamellicorns  and  Stapliy 
linids,  Canthon,  etc..  Fig.  87)  are 
ornamented  with  horns,  which 
exist  only  as  rudiments  or  are 
wholly  wanting  in  the  other  sex  ; 
in  the  male  Lucanus  (Fig.  110)  the 
mandibles  are  of  great  size  (com- 
pare also  Figs.  88  and  89).  Darwin 
remarks  that  beetles  belonging  to 
many  and  widely  distinct  families 
possess  stridnlating  organs.  Cer- 
tain musical  weevils  can  be  heard 
at  a  distance  of  several  feet  or  even 
yards;  the  apparatus  varying  much 
in  position  on  the  body,  but  usu- 
ally consisting  of  a  rasp  or  set  of 
ribs,  and  a  scraper;  in  many  Lon- 
gicorns  the  rasp  is  on  the  meso- 
thorax,  which  is  rubbed  against  the 
prothorax  ;  but  the  apparatus  does 
not  differ  much  according  to  sex. 
(Darwin.) 

Protected  from  harm  by  their 
hard  shell-like  skin  and  their  thick 
wing  -  covers,  and  living,  as  grubs, 
as  pupge,  and  as  beetles,  quite  dif- 
ferent lives,  it  would  be  hard  to  ex- 
terminate them.  Myriad  as  are 
their  forms,  every  species  has  slight- 
ly different  habits  and  surround- 
ings from  its  allies,  and  thus  fills  a 
niche  in  the  insect-world  which  it 
alone  can  occupy.  And  it  is  this 
wonderful  power  of  adaptation  to 
changes  in  circumstances,  as  well 
as  their  solid  skins  and  complete 
metamorphosis,  which  has  enabled  the  great  beetle  order  of 
over  100,000  kinds  to  become  so  abundant  and  prominent 


Fig, 


'.  —  Ch  iasogn  a  thus  gran- 
recluced.    Upper  figure 

male,  lowei-  figure  female. — 

After  Darwin. 


Hi, 


98  ENTOMOLOGY. 

a  group.  They  are  preyed  upon  at  different  times  of  life  by 
different  enemies.  AVorms,  parasitic  mites,  and  birds  and 
beasts  constantly  make  war  upon  them,  but  these  enemies 
only  confine  their  numbers  within  healthy  limits;  so  that, 
after  all  the  inroads  made  upon  them,  there  is  still  food 
enough  and  room  enough  for  each  species  to  exist  in  its  own 
beetle- fashion  in  its  own  little  beetle-world. 

The  Coleoptera  have  been  divided  by  LeConte  into  two 
great  groups  or  sub-orders,  viz. :  the  Ehynchophora  or 
weevils,  in  which  the  head  is  beaked  and  the  palpi  are 
short  and  rigid,  while  the  labrum  is  usually  absent,*  besides 
otlier  less  apparent  characters;  and  the  genuine  Coleoptera. 

The  genuine  Coleoptera,  again,  are  divided  by  the  number 
of  joints  in  their  tarsi  as  follows: 

1.  Hind  tarsi  with  the  same  number  of  joints  at  least  as 

the  others  (except  in  a  few  Clavicorns) .  .Isomera. 

2.  Front   and    middle    tarsi    5-,    hind    tarsi   4-jointed. 

Heteromera. 
The  Isomera  are  divided  by  LeConte  and  Horn  into  five 
series,  perhaps  super-families: 

A.  Fourth  and  fifth  tarsal  joints  not  connate: 

First  three  ventral  segments  connate:  first  divided  by 
the  hind  coxal  cavities  so  that  the  sides  are  sepa- 
rated from  the  very  small  medial  part.  Adephaga. 
First  ventral  segment  visible  for  its  entire  breadth  (ex- 
cept in  Rhyssodidffi) : 
Antennae    clavate    or   capitate,  very  rarely  serrate. 

Clavicornia. 
Antennae  serrate,   very  rarely   clavate   or   caj)itate. 

8ERRIC0RNIA. 

Antennae  with  a  lamellate  club,  the  opposing  surfaces 
with  a  very  delicate  sensitive  structure  ;  legs  fos- 
sorial Lamellicornia. 

B.  Fourth  and   fifth  tarsal  joints  auchylosed;   the  for- 

mer very  small;  antennte  filiform,  rarely  serrate,  or 
feebly  thickened  externally Phytophaga. 

*  In  the  Authribidai  aud  Rhinomaceridae  the  labrum  is  present 
and  the  palpi  are  not  rigid. 


ORDER  COLEOPTERA. 


99 


Sub-order  1.  Rhynchophora. 

Beginning  with  the  lowest  family  and  ending  with  the 
highest,  we  take  np  first  the  weevils  or  Rhynchophora,  the 
definitions  being  taken  from  LeConte  and  Horn's  ''Classi- 
fication of  the  Coleoptera  of  North  America. " 

Family  Anthribidae. — Beak  broad,  tiat;  antennae  straight,  11- jointed; 
labrum  distinct;  last  spiracle  uncovered.     Anthribus  cornutus  Say. 

Family  Scolytidae. — Body  thick,  cylindrical;  beak  short,  often  not 
apparent ;  pygidium  surrounded  at  the  edge  by  the  elytra;  tibiic 
usually  serrate.  The  family  of  bark-borers  or  timber-beetles  is  an 
extensive  one.  They  burrow  sometimes  by  thousands  under  the 
bark  of  trees,  especially  spruce  and  pine,  causing  the  death  and  rapid 
decay  of  the  tree  by  arresting  the  flow  of  sap.  Their  galleries,  bur- 
rows, or  "mines"  usually  branch  out  at  right  angles  from  a  single 
gallery  ;  the  female  in  this  single  gal- 
lery lays  her  eggs  in  notches  at  quite 
regular  intervals  along  each  side;  the 
larvse,  on  hatching,  mine  in  a  direction 
at  right  angles  to  the  original  gallery. 
In  some  cases  the  mine  resembles  a 
bird's  track,  the  galleries  radiating 
from  a  single  point.  The  larva;  are 
cylindrical  and  footless.  Dendroctonus 
terebrans  Oliv.,  Tomicus  pini  Say, 
Dryocmtes  affnber.    The  most  injurious 

species   to   the   spruce   are   Xyleboi'us '^^^-   ^^-—Dryoccetesaffaher. 
a  flatus  (Zimm. ),  X  xylociraph  its  ( Say),  ^^''""^ '  ^'  P"P^- 

and  Xyloterus  bimttatus  (Kirby). 

Family  Calandridse. — Beak    never   narrowed    behind    the  eyes ; 


Fig.  9\.—Calandra  oryzce.    c,  rice  weevil:  a,  larva;  b,  pupa,    e,  grain  weevil. 


100 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


antennae  geniculate ;  labrum  wanting ;  last  spiracie  not  visible. 
Rhynco-phorus  'palmnrum  Linn.  Here  belong  the  rice,  CWuiudru  oryzu 
(Linn.),  and  grain  weevils,  C.  granarius  (Linn.);  the  latter  so  gi'eut  a 
pest  in  granaries,  the  larva  devouring  the  inside  of  the  hull. 


Fig.  98.— Northern  Brenthian.    a,  larva;  b.  pupa;  r,  beetle,  female;  d,  head  Di 
male;  e,  foui-th  antennal  joint;  g-l,  parts  of  larval  head;  /,  leg.— After  Riley. 

Family  Brenthidae. — Head  diilering  as  to  sex;  narrowed  behind  ; 
antennse  not  geniculate;  prothorax  very  long.  The  female  of  the 
northern  Brenthian,  Eupsalis  minuta  (Drury),  bores  a  hole  in  the 
bark  of  the  oak,  pushing  an  egg  into  the  hole;  the  males  are  very 
pugnacious  (Fig.  93). 


Fig.  93.— Hazel-nut  weevil.        Fig.  94.— White-pine  weevil,  o,  larva;  6,  pupa. 


Family  Curculionidae. — Mandibles  with  no  apical  scar;  beak  vari- 
able in  form  and  length;  antenna  usually  geniculate  These  weevils 
form  a  family  exceedingly  numerous  in  species,  which  bore  in  the 
bark  of  trees,  in  nuts,  seeds,  etc.  Balaninus  nasicus  Say  (Fig.  93); 
Plssodes  strobi  Peck  (Fig.  94) ;  ConotracJielus  neiniphar  Herbst,  the 
plum  weevil. 

Family  Otiorhynchidae. — Mandibles  with  a  deciduous  piece  leaving 


ORDEIi  COLKOPTERA. 


101 


beuk  vari!vl)le,  never  lou 
11-joiuted 


and  slender  ;  auteuuae  geniculate, 
Otiorlii/nchiis  sidcatus  Fabr. ;  E71. 
tint  us  imperialis  Forster,  the  diamond  beetle. 

Family  Byrsopidae. — Tarsi  setose;  proster- 
nuni  excavated.  Thecesteriius  humeralis  Say; 
Byrtiopages  carittatus  Mots. 

Famil}'  Attelabidae. — Beak  short  and  stout, 
thickened  at  the  end;  mandibles  stout,  pincer- 
shaped.  Attelabus  rhois  Boh.  rolls  up  an  alder- 
leaf  to  form  a  cell  for  its  eggs  and  larva. 

Family  Rhynchitidae. — Beak  slender;  man- 
dibles flat ;  toothed  on  the  inner  and  outer 
sides.  Rhynchites  bicolor  Fabr.,  a  red  weevil 
living  on  cultivated  and  wild  roses. 

Family  Rhinomaceridse. — Labrum  distinct; 
long  as  the  prothorax.     R/unomacer  elongatus  Leo. 


Sub-order  2.  Coleoptera  genuina. 

Section  Heteromera. 

Family  Stylopidae. — By  some  autliors  referred  to  a  distinct  "  order" 
(Strepsiptera).  In  the  males,  which  fly  about,  the  mouth-parts 
are,  except  the    mandibles  and  one  pair  of   palpi,    atrophied  ;   the 


Fig.  96.—St!/lop.-< 
Fig.  97.— Female. 


Fiy  9(5.  Fig,  97. 

:hi  III  rent,  male,  dorsal  and  side  view. 
(',  ill  the  abdomen  of  a  bee  (Andrena);  6,  the  same  removed. 


pro-  and  mcsothorax  are  very  short,  and  the  elytra  reduced  to  slender, 
club  shaped  appendages,  while  the  hind  wings  are  well  devel()i)ed, 
the  metathorax  being  lemarkably  large  and  long,  the  abdomen  being 
small.     The  females  are  wingless,  worm-like,  with  a  flattened   Iri- 


102 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


augulai  Lead,  and  live  within  the  abdomen  of  bees  and  wasps, 
though  certain  foreign  genera  are  parasites  in  ants  and  Homoptera. 
The  female  is  viviparous,  giving  birth  to  hundreds  of  very  minute 
young,  which  are  of  very  prinaitive  form,  with  bulbous  feet,  the 
slender,  hair}'  body  ending  in  two  long  styles,  and  the  intestine  end- 
ing as  a  closed  sack.  Stylops  childreni  Gray;  Xenos  peckii  Kirby 
lives  in  a  common  wasp  (Polistes  metricus  Say). 

Famil}'  Ehipiphoridae. — Tarsi  with  claws  (those  of  Stylopids  being 
clawless),  elytra  rarel}"  covering  the  abdomen,  as  wide  as  the  pro- 
thorax  in  front,  usually  narrowed  behind,  sometimes  (Myodites) 
very  small;  rarel}'  (Rhipidivis)  wanting  in  the  female,  in  which  case 
the  wings  are  also  wanting,  and  the  body  is  larviform.  Rhipidius 
pectinicoTiiis  is  parasitic  in  Europe  in  Ectobid  germanica.  This  form 
is  a  connecting  link  between  Stylopida?  and  other  beetles.  Metoscus 
pa/radoxus  Liuu.  is  a  parasite  in  the  nests  of  wasps  (Vespa). 


Fig.  98.— a,  freshly-hatched  larva  of  Meloe.  first  or  Campodea-form  stage  ;  6, 
second  or  carabidoid  stage;  c,  coarctate,  footless  larva,  third  stage;  cl,  pupa; 
e,  imago,  male. 


Family  Meloidae. — Prothorax  narrower  at  base  than  the  elytra, 
which  are  variable  in  form,  in  ]\Ieloe  very  short  and  pointed;  claws 
cleft  or  toothed;  front  of  head  vertical.  Larva  primitive,  Campodea- 
form,  certain  species  parasitic  on  bees;  they  mostly  undergo  a  hyper- 
metamorphosis,  there  being  three  larval  stages  (Fig.  98,  a,  b,  c). 

The  blister-beetle  or  Spanish  lly,  Cantharis  vencatoria  Linn.,  is  rep- 
resented in  the  United  States  hy  the  species  of  Macrobasis  and 
Epicauta  (Fig.  99,  E.  cinerea  Forst.),  which,  with  Horia,  pass 
through  a  hypermetamorphosis  in  general  like  that  of  Melo6,  the  oil 
beetle  {Meloe  angusticollis  Say). 

Family  Pyrochroidae — Antennse  often  ramose;  hind  coxa'  large  and 
prominent;  claws  simple;  head  horizontal;  elytra  wider  than  abdo- 
men, rounded  at  tip.  Pyrochroa  JUdjellata  Fabr. ;  Dendraides  canadensis 
Latr. 


ORDER  COLEOPTERA. 


103 


Family  Anthicidae. — Hind  coxte  not  promiueut ;   anteunae  rarely 
flabellate.     Notoxm  amliora  Heutz. 


Fig.  W.—Epicauta  cinerea.    a,  end  of  second  larval  stage;  c,  d,  coarctate  larva 
of  £■.  vittata;  e,  /,  pupa  of  E.  cinerea.— Alter  Riley. 

Family  Mordellidae. — Antenuoe  tiliform ;  hind  coxae  lamiuiform; 
prothorax  much  narrowed  in  front;  elytra  narrowed  behind.  Mor- 
della  8-punctata  Fabr. 

Family  Cephaloidae.^Head  prolonged  behind  and  gradually  nar- 
rowed.    Cephaloon  lepturides  Newman. 

Family  (Edemeridae. — Middle  coxae  very  prominent.  Nacerdes 
■melanuni  (Linn.). 

Family  Pythidae. — Antennae  free;  thorax  not  margined;  di.sk  not 
impressed  at  base.     Pytho  niger  Kirby. 

Family  Melandryidae  — Auttnuae  free;  thorax  margined  at  sides; 
disk  with  basal  impressions.     Melandrya  striata  Say. 

Family  Monommidae. — Antennae  received  in  grooves.  Hyp/rhagus 
opaculus  (Lee). 

Family  Lagriidae. — Penidtimate  joint  of  tarsi  spongy  beneath. 
Arthromacra  a'liea  Say. 

Family  Othniidae. — Ventral  segments  five,  free ;  anterior  coxae 
small.     Othnius  lunbrosus  hec. 

Family  Cistelidae. — Tarsal  claws  pectinate.     Cistela  sericea  Say. 

Family  .Egialitidae. — Ventral  segments  six,  the  last  two  closely 
united,  the  hrst  two  connate.     JEgialites  debilis  Mann. 

Family  Tenebrionidae. — Tarsal  claws  simple;  5  ventral  segments, 
in  part  connate;  antennae  usually  thickened  towards  the  end;  anterior 
and  middle  tarsi  5- jointed;  hind  tarsi  4- jointed,  the  first  joint  almost 
always  longer  than  the  second;  wings  often  wanting.  This  very 
extensive  family  is  difficult  to  diagnose.  The  larvte  are  slender, 
flattened,  horny,  resembling  wire-worms,  and  the  last  segment  of 
the  body  often  bears  two  spines.  The  larva  of  Teiiebrio  moliiov  Linn., 
the  meal-worm,  occurs  in  corn  and  rye  meal,  and  both  beetles  and 
larvae  feed  on  ship-biscuit.  Other  genera  are  Helops,  Boletophagus, 
Blaps,  Eleodes,  Upis,  etc. 

Section    Isomera. 
Phytophaga. 

This  group  is  difficult  to  define,  but  all  agree  in  feeding 
on  vegetable  matter. 

Family  Bruchidae.  -These  beetles  are  "  Chrysomelidae  with  the 
submentum  distinctly  pedunculate;"  front  of  head  prolonged  into  a 


104 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


broad  square  beak;  auteunoe  inserted  in  front  of  the  eyes,  variable 
in  length,  serrate  or  pectinate;  tibial  spurs  distinct  or  obsolete.  The 
larviB  live  in  the  seeds  of  leguminous  plants.  Bruchiis  pid  (Linn.) 
infests  peas,  and  B.  obsoletus  Say  is  the  bean  weevil. 

Familj'  Chrysomelidse. — The  leaf  beetles  have  the  antennae  of  mod- 
erate length  or  short,  not  inserted  upon  frontal  prominences;  front 
small,  oblique,  sometimes  (Hispini,  Cassidini)  iutlexed  ;  pronotum 
most  frequently  margined;  tibial  spurs  usually  wanting.  This  family 
includes  the  Colorado  potato  beetle  and  other  species,  which  are 
injurious  to  garden  vegetables.     The  potato  beetle  {DorypJwra  10- 


^ 


Fig.  100.— Turnip  flea-beetle,  a, 
larva;  6,  pupa. 


Fig.  101.— Squash  beetle,    a,  larva;  6,  pupa. 


Uneata  Say)  finishes  its  transformations  within  a  month  after  hatching 
from  the  yellow  eggs  which  are  laid  on  the  under  side  of  the  potato 
leaves.  In  the  Central  States  there  are  three  broods,  each  of  which 
pupate  usually  iiuder  ground,  the  first  two  broods  remaining  in  the 
soil  for  ten  or  twelve  days,  while  the  third  brood  remain  under 
ground  through  the  winter,  the  beetles  appearing  late  the  next 
spring. 

The  flea-beetles  (Haltica)  are  little  dark  jumping  beetles  which 
eat  tender  and  young  beets,  cucumbers,  turnips,  etc.  (Fig.  100).    The 


i^'.i^  lip  "«q 

a  "  6  o 

Fig.  102.— Apple-tree  borer,    a,  larva;  b,  pupa;  c,  beetle.— After  Riley. 

squash  beetle  (Diabrotka  vittata  Fabr.)  appears  on  squash  and  cucum- 
ber vines  as  soon  as  they  are  up,  eating  the  young  leaves.  The  elm- 
leaf  beetle  (Oaleruca  xantliomelann  Schr.)  has  of  late  years  caused  the 
leaves  of  that  tree  to  wither  and  die,  destroying  the  tree  in  towns 


OBDER  COLEOPTEitA. 


105 


and  cities.     There  are  in  all  from  8000  to  10,000  species  of  this 
family. 

Family  Cerambycidae. — The  lougicorus  are  recognized  by  their 
usually  long  anteuna\  by  their  large,  broad  heads,  usually  ver- 
tical, and  distinct  tibial  spurs.  While  the  Chrysomelidse  devour  the 
leaves,  the  trunks  of  trees  are  tunnelled  and  tinally  destroyed  by  the 
larvfe  of  this  family,  called  borers.  The  beetles  themselves  are 
remarkable  for  their  large  size,  rich  colors,  and  elegant  forms.  Over 
7500  species  are  known,  the  most  beautiful  being  from  the  tropics. 


Fio.  103.— Larva  of  Monohammus  confu-  Fig.  104.— The  beetle  in  its 

sor.    a,  top;  6,  side  view,  natural  size;  cell  in  a  piece  of   planed 

d,  upper,  c,  under,  side  of  the  head,  en-  plank, 
larged ;  e,  side,  /,  under  side,  of  pupa. 

Beginning  with  Saperda,  we  recall  the  apple-tree  borer,  S.  Candida 
Fabr.,  which  destroys  living,  especially  young,  apple-trees,  the 
female  laying  her  eggs  by  making  gashes  in  the  bark  near  the  roots, 
the  larva  boring  upwards  into  the  wood,  as  it  increases  in  size  with 
age.  Onckleres  cingulaius  (Say)  places  its  eggs  in  small  branches  of 
hickory,  etc.,  then  gnawing  through  the  bark  below,  so  that  the 
branch  afterwards  becomes  broken  off  by  the  wind. 


106 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Fig.  105.  —  Common 
hickory  borer,  a, 
larva;  b.  pupa. 


Fig.  106.— Male. 


Pine-trees  are  infested  by  the  borer  or  larva  of  Monohammus  con- 
fiisor  Kirby,  which  tunnels  the  tree,  and  injures  the  lumber  made  from 
it;  the  ginib  makes  a  creaking  noise  which  may  be  heard  some  distance 
from  the  tree  in  which  it  is  at  work.  One  of  these  beetles  is  known  to 
have  issued  from  the  pine  wood  of  a  bureau  wherein  it  must  have 
lived  fully  fifteen  years.  The  female  lays  her  eggs  in  curvilinear 
gashes  in  the  bark  in  August,  and  the  larva  is  two  years  in  attaining 
its  full  size. 

Living,  healthy  sugar-maples  are  gradually  killed  by  the  attacks  of 
a  beautiful  yellow-banded  brown  beetle  {PUigionoUis  speciosus  Say) 

which  deposits  its  eggs  in  gashes 
in  the  bark,  the  eggs  being  laid 
late  in  July  and  in  Augu.st. 
The  hickory  borer  (Fig.  105)  and 
a  very  closely  allied  species 
which  destroys  the  locust-tree  in 
the  Northern  States,  are  among 
the  most  injurious  beetles  of  this 
family. 

The  sub-family  Prioninte  con- 
tains almost  the  largest  beetles 
known  ;  among  them  is  Ortho- 
8oma  brunneum  (De  Geer).  The  species  of  Mallodon  occur  in  the 
Southern  and  Western  States,  and  M.melanopus^iilA.  bores  in  the  roots 
of  the  young  live-oak,  dwarfing  the  tree. 

Family  Spondylidae. — Tarsi  not  widened, 
and  with  no  brush  of  hairs  beneath.  Pa- 
randra  brunnea  Fabr. 

Lamellicornia. 

The  beetles  of  this  well-circum- 
scribed group  all  agree  in  having 
the  antennas  ending  in  a  club  com- 
posed of  three,  sometimes  as  many 
as  seven,  leaves  or  lamellae,  while 
the  body  is  usually  short  and  thick. 

Family  Scarabseidse. — Antenna!  lamella? 
capable  of  being  closely  shut  into  a  com- 
pact club.  This  group  embraces  the  largest 
Coleoptera  and  the  most  bulky  of  all  in- 
sects, viz. ,  the  gigantic  Goliath  and  Her- 
cules beetles.  Their  larvae  are  soft-skinned, 
thick-bodied,  with  rather  long  legs,  and 
4- jointed  antenna>;  they  live  on  roots,  etc. , 
and  often  transform  in  underground 
cells ;  the  beetles  devour  leaves  and  the  pollen  of  flowers.  There 
are  nearly  7000  species.  The  Cetonioe  comprise  very  large  and  beau- 
tiful beetles;  then  comes  our  Southern  Dynastes  tityxs  Linn.,  an  allied 
species  in  South   America  being  D.  kercules  Linn.     These  are  suc- 


FiG.  lOr.  —  The  lesser  Pri- 
oinis  Natural  size.— After 
Riley. 


ORDER  COLKOPTERA. 


107 


ceeded  by  the  grape  beetle,  Pelidmta  punctata  Liun.,  and  the  Gold- 
smith beetle,  Cotalpa  lanigera  Linn.     The  May-beetle,  or  dor-bug,  is  a 


Fig.  108.— Metamorphosis  of  the  May  beetle      2,  grub  or  larva,    1    pupa  •    3  4 
beetle.     Natural  size.— After  Riley.  f    >     .    . 

very  common  species;  its  larva  devours  the  roots  of  grass,  sometimes 
injuring  lawns,  also  the  roots  of  seedling  trees  in  plantations.    Allied 


Fig.  109.— Goldsmith  beetle  and  larva.    Natural  size. 

to  it  is  the  rose-chafer,  Macrodactylus  subspinosus  Fabr.,  while  at  the 
head  of  the  family  is  the  dung-beetle  {Phvneus  carnifexljinxi.),  and  the 
sacred  Scarabseus  of  Egyptian  inscriptions. 

Family  Lucanidae.— Club  usually  not  flattened,  leaves  not  capable  of 
being  closed.  Lucanus  damaThxmh.,  stag-beetle;  Passalus  carnutus 
Fabr.  occurs  in  all  its  stages  in  decayed  hard-wood  stumps  in  spring. 


108 


ENTOMOLOOT. 


Fig.  WQ.—Lucanus  dama.        Fig.  111.— Larvaand  cocoon.  Natural  size. 
Serricornia. 
In  this  group  the  antenna  are  usually  serrate. 
Family    Sphindidae. — Tarsi    heteromerous,  living   in    dry   fungi. 
SpMndtis  americanus  Lee. 

Family  Cioidae. — Tarsi  4-1ointed;  antennae  clavate  or  flabellate.    Cis 
fuseipes  Mellie. 

Family  Lymexylidse.    Front  coxae  conical,  prominent;  tarsi  slender. 
Lymexylon  sericcuin  Harris. 

Family  Cupesidae.     Head  narrowed  behind;  eyes  smooth.     Cupes 
capita  *a  Fabr. 

Family  Ptinidse. — Head  not  narrowed  behind;  eyes  granulated; 
mesothoracic  epimera  not  reaching  the  coxae;  antennae  with  usually 
9-11  joints,  variable  in  form.  Beetles  mostly  of  small  size,  often 
living  in  partly  decayed  vegetable  matter.  Ptintis  fur  Linn,  some- 
times attacks  museum  collections.  Anobium  is  the  death-tick,  and  its 
ally,  Sitodrepa,  panicea  Fabr. ,  has  proved  at  times  to  be  a  museum  pest. 
Family  Cleridse. — Antennae  inserted  at  the  sides  of  the  front,  usual 

ly  11- jointed,  rarely  clubbed; 
tarsi  5- jointed,with  membranous 
lobes  beneath  the  four  basal 
joints.  The  beetles  of  beautiful 
colors,  occurring  on  plants  or 
trunks  of  trees;  the  larvae  live 
under  bark  and  are  carnivorous, 
and  those  of  Trichodes  (Fig. 
112)  infest  nests  of  bees  in  Eu 
rope.  A  few  (Corynetes,  Necro- 
bia)  live  on  dead  animal  matter. 
TricJiodes  nniUdlii  Kirby. 

Family    Malachidae. — Ventral 
segments  5  or  6;  antennae  insert- 
ed   generally  before    the  eyes. 
Body  with  lateral,  distensible  vesicles.    Malachius  ceneus  (Linn.). 


Fig.  112. — Trichodes  aplarius. 


ORDER  COLEOPTERA. 


109 


Family  Lampyridae.— Ventral   segments   7    to  8;  antennae  serrate, 
rarely  pectinate  or  flabellate,  inserted  on  the  front ;  skin  rather  thin ; 


4A 


ikl 


Fig.  WZ.—Photimis pyralis,  fire-fly.    Natural  size.    «,  larva;    6,  pupa;  /,  head; 
e,  under  side  of  a  larval  segment.— After  Riley. 

found  on  plants.  While  the  Phengodini  are  pho.sphorescent,  the 
tribe  Lampyrini  embraces  the  tire-flies,  which  have  phos 
phorescent  organs  at  the  end  of  the  abdomen.  In  the 
species  of  PJwturis  both  sexes  are  winged,  but  in  Laiivpyris  ^^ 
the  females,  called  glow-worms,  are  larva-like  and  wing- 
less. The  larvfe  are  often  carnivorous,  living  on  snails, 
worms,  etc.  The  females  of  Phengodes  and  Zarhipis  are 
not  easily  distinguishable  from  the  larvte,  and  are  phos- 
phorescent (Fig.  114). 

Family  Buprestidae.— Skin  very  thick  and  solid;  antennae 
serrate;  tarsi  with  membranous  lobes  as  in  the  Cleridoe. 
Larvje  with  a  large,  broad  prothoracic  segment,  body  be- 
hind slender,  cylindrical ;  living  under  bark.  This  groiip 
is  numerous  in  species,  about  2700  being  known.  They 
usually  have  metallic  reflections  and  often  rich  colors;  but 
are  very  injurious  to  fruit  and  shade  trees  (pines,  oaks, 
etc.).  Chrysobothris  femordta  Oliv.  is  a  common  and  de- 
structive species;  in  Dicerca  the  tips  of  the  elytra  separate. 
Chdlcophora  virginienm  Drury  bores  into  the  trunks  of 
pines.    Melanophila  drummondi  (Kirby). 

Family  Throscidae. — Resembling  the  next  family,  but 
with  the  prothorax  fixed  so  as  to  be  enabled  to  leap.  Thros- 
cus  constrictor  Say. 


m 


\\3 


[}J 


J4, 


Fig.   114.- 
Female 
(or  larva?] 
of  Phen- 
godes. 


Fig.  11.5. — Chrysobothris  femo- 
rata  and  larva. 


Fig.   116.— Drummond's 
Melanophila. 


Family  Elateridae. — Prothorax  loosely  articulated,  the  prosternum 
prolonged  behind,  forming  a  sharp  spine  which  moves  in  a  cavity 
in  the  mesosternum,  so  as  to  suddenly  throw  the  beetle  in  the  air 


110 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Fig.     117.— Fire-fly. 
Natural  size. 


if  placed  on  its  back.  The  group  of  snapping-beetles  is  very  ex- 
tensive, over  3000  species  being  recorded;  tlie 
larvae  are  called  wire-worms  from  their  hard,  slen- 
der cylindrical  bodies,  and  are  known  to  live  two 
years  before  transforming;  they  are  mostly  her- 
bivorous, a  few  larvae,  however,  devouring  the 
eggs  of  locusts.  Here  belongs  the  tire-fly  of  the 
West  Indies,  Pyrophorus  noctilucus  Linn.  (Fig. 
117). 

Family  Ehipiceridae. — Antennae  serrate  in  the 
female,  frequently  flabellate  in  the  males;  ony- 
chium  large  and  hairy.  Saiidalus  petrophya 
Knoch. 

Family  Dascyllidae. — Head  not  constricted  be- 
hind ;  eyes  granulated  ;  mesothoracic  epimera 
reaching  the  coxae.  Larvae  more  or  less  aquatic. 
Prionocyphon  discoideus  Say. 
Clavicornia. 
In  this  group  the  antennae  are  dn1> 
shaped ,  while  the  tarsi  vary  in  having  from 
1  to  5  joints. 

Family  Heteroceridae. — Antennae  short,   irregular;    legs  fossorial. 
Heterocerus  pallidus  Say. 

Family  Parnidae.— Aquatic  beetles,  with  a  retrac- 
tile head ;  last  joint  of  tarsi  long,  claws  large.  Larvae 
aquatic,  hemispherical  ;  that  of  Psephenus  lecontei 
Lee.  lives  under  stones  in  rapid  streams;  the  pupa 
is  formed  under  the  larval  skin  which  protects  the 
insect  beneath  like  the  scale  of  a  Coccus. 

Family  Georyssidae. — Small,  rounded,  convex 
beetles,  which  cover  themselves  with  mud;  coxae 
contiguous;  prosternum  semi -membranous.  Oeovys- 
svs  pusillus  Lee. 

Family  Byrrhidae.— Pill  beetles;  head  usually  re- 
tracted under  the  prothorax;  body  oval  or  rounded 
and  very  convex;  legs  retractile.  Byrrhus  ameri- 
canus  Lee. 

Family  Derodontidae. — Anterior  coxae  conical,  transverse. 
dontus  maeulaim  (Mels.). 

Family  Trogositidae. — Antennae  straight;  tarsi 
slender  first  joint  short;  living  under  bark  or 
in  fungi,  while  certain  species  are  injurious  to 
grain.     Trogosita  virescens  Fabr. 

Family  Nitidulidae. — Antennae  straight;  tarsi 
more  or  less  dilated,  first  joint  not  short.  Larvae 
living  usually  in  decaying  matter.  Nitidula 
hipnstulata  Linn.,  Ipsfasciuhm  Linn. 

Family  Histeridae. — Body  oblong  and  flat,  or 
round,  oval,  globose,  or    cylindrical  ;  antennae 
geniculate;   tibiae   usually  all     dilated.      The 
species  are  scavengers,  living  under  bark  of 
trees,  in  excrements,  and  in  carcasses.     Hister  intemiptus  Beauv. 


Fig.  lis.— Larva 
of  Psephenus  le- 
contei. 


Dero- 


FiG.    n9.~Ips  fasci- 
atus.    a,  larva. 


ORDER  COLEOPTERA. 


Ill 


Familj'  Dermestidae. — Small  oval  or  elongate  beetles;  body  usual- 
ly scaly  or  pube.scent.  IJen/iistex  lardarius  Liuu.  in  the  larva  state 
is  destructive  to  museum  collections,  especially  insects,  as  is  that  of 
Attagenus  pellio,  yihich.  also  eats  holes  in  carpets;  while  the  worst 


Fig.  120.— Larva  of  Mis- 
ter merdarius. 


Fig.  1^1.— Museum  pest,    a,  pupa;  6,  larva. 


museum  pest  is  Anthrenm  varius  Fabr.  (Fig.  121).     A.  scfrophtda- 
ruv  Liuu.  is  the  carpet  beetle,  introduced  from  Europe. 

Family  Mycetophagidae. — Body  tiattened;   head  free.     Living  on 
fungi  and  uuder  bark.     Mpcetophagmpunctatus  Say. 


Fig.  122. — Dei-mestes  lanlariiis  and  larva. 


Fig.  13.3.—"  Lady-bird"  and  pupa. 
Natural  size. 


Famil}^  Cryptophagidae. — Prothorax  nearly  or  quite  as  wide  as  the 
elytra;  hind  male  tarsi  sometimes  4- jointed.  Anther opliag us  ochraceus 
■Melsh. 

Family  Cucujidse. — Body  very  tiat  and  long;  abdomen  with  five 
free  segments.  Living  under  bark,  ants'  nests,  etc.  Syltanus  surina- 
mensis  Linn,  breeds  in  bran,  rice,  and  wheat. 

Family  Rhyssodidae. — Kesembling  Carabidte;  head  with  a  distinct 
neck;  living  under  bark.     B/ii/swdes  exaratusl]]. 

Family  Colydiidae. — Small  insects,  usually  of  an  elongate  or  cylin- 
drical form;  with  regular  antennoe;  tarsi  4-iointed,  simple;  legs  not 
fossorial.  Living  under  the  bark  of  trees,  in  fungi,  or  in  the  earth. 
Colydium  lineola  Say. 


112 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Fig.  12-1, —Larva   of 
"Lady-bird." 


Family  Erotylid?e. — Tarsi  more  or  less  dilated  and  spongy  beneath. 
Erotyliis;  Daene  i-maculata  (Say). 

Family  Endomychidse. — Tarsi  4-jointed,  or, 
from  the  atrophy  of  the  third  joint,  apparently 
3- jointed;  claws  simple.  Endomychxis  biguitatus 
Say. 

Family  Coccinellidae. — Hemispherical  beetles 
with  the  head  deeply  immersed  in  the  prothorax; 
tarsi  with  the  second  joint  dilated;  claws  appen- 
diculate  or  toothed,  sometimes  simple;  larva-  of 
great  benefit  to  agriculture  from  devouring 
Aphides.  When  about  to  pupate,  the  larva  at- 
taches itself  by  the  end  of  the  body  to  a  leaf,  and 
either  throws  off  the  larva  skin,  which  remains 
around  its  tail,  or  the  cast  skin  is  retained,  loose- 
ly folded  about  the  pupa  as  a  rude  sort  of  co- 
coon. Coccinella  Twvem-notata  Herbst  (Fig.  123); 
Psyllobora  20-mnculata  Say  (Fig  134). 

Family  Corylophidae. — Wings  fringed  with  long 
hairs;  a  loose  antennal  club.     Corylophus  truncatus  Lee. 

Family  Phalacridae. — Body  oval,  convex;  scutellum  larger  than 
usual.     Phalacrus  oralis  Lee. 

Famil}'  Scaphidiidae. — Body  oval,  convex;  elytra  broadly  truncate 
behind;  tarsi  long  and  slender.     Scaphidium  quadriguttatum  Say. 

Family  Sphaeriidse. — Wings  fringed  with  long  hairs;  abdomen 
with  3  ventral  segments.     Sphfmus politus  Horn. 

Family  Hydroscaphidse. — Antennae  short,  not  verticillate;  abdomen 
prolonged.     Hi/droxcapIiK  nntans  Lee. 

Family  Trichopterygidae. — Antennae  slender,  verticillate,  abdomen 
not  prolonged;  the  smallest  beetles  known.  TricJiopt&i'yx  aspera 
Haldeman. 

Family  Staphylinidae. — Elj^tra  very  short;  abdomen  entirely  cor- 
neous, with  7  or  8  visil)le  .segments.  The 
rove-beetles,  recognized  by  their  narrow, 
long  bodies  and  upturned  abdomens,  are 
often  minute,  living  under  stones,  in  ma- 
nure-heaps, fungi,  moss,  and  in  ant-hills. 
Staphylitms  milpinus  Nordm. 

Family  Pselaphidae. — Very  small;  head 
and  prothorax  narrower  than  the  elytra 
and  abdomen,  the  latter  obtuse  at  tip. 
Pselaplius  erichsonii  Lee. 

Family  Scydmaenidae.  —  Differing  from 
Pselaphids  by  the  long  elytra.  Scydvwnus 
marm  Lee. 

Family  Silphidae. — The  burying  beetles 
have  the  antenna;  clubbed,  sometimes  near- 
ly filiform;  larviB  broad,  sides  of  body 
serrated.  Necrop]i(,rus  nmericanus  Oliv., 
Silpha  lapponka  Herbst,  S.  surinamenm 
Fabr.  Adelopshirtus  Tellk.  is  a  blind  cave- 
beetle. 

Family  Leptinidae.— Ej^es  absent  or  imperfect.  Lspiinus  testae eus 
Mull,  is  parasitic  on  mice,  etc. ;  Leptinillus  validua  Horn  on  the  beaver. 


Fig  1:25.— Plai3psyllus  of 
the  beaver.  —  After  Le 
Conte. 


ORDER  COLEOPTERA. 


113 


Family  Platypsyllidae. — Body  flat,  like  a  cockroach;  eyes  and 
mandibles  wanting,  Platypsyllus  castoris  Ritsema  is,  both  in  its  larval 
and  adult  stages,  a  parasite  of  the  beaver. 

Family  Hydrophilidae.— Body  oblong,  oval,  convex,  or  hemispheri- 


FiG.  126.— Hydrophilus;   its  egg-case  and  larva.     Natural  size, 
cal;  palpi  often  very  long;  mostly  aquatic;  larvte  carnivorous.     Hi/- 
dropMlus  triangularis  Say;  Sphceridium  scarabamdes  (Linn.). 

Adephaga. 
This  group  has  been   ah-eady  briefly  defined  on  p.  98. 
The  water  and  ground   beetles  are 
usually   carnivorous    both    in    the 
larval    and    adult    stages,    though 
many  are  phytophagous. 

Family  Gyrinidae. — Body  oval;  an- 
tonnfe  irregular,  very  short;  eyes  di- 
vided so  that  they  appear  as  four.  The  i  I  jt  ^^I 
whirligig  beetles  are  seen  in  groups  \  \  j^  iW^- 
gyrating  and  circling  on  the  surface  of 
ponds  and  streams,  and  when  caught 
give  out  a  disagreeable  milky  .  fluid. 
Oyrinus  horealis  Aube. 

Family  Dytiscidae.— Like  Carabids,  ex-  vic,s.Vi",n^.-Gyrhmshorealis 
cept   in   those   characters  which   adapt    and  larva  of  another  species. 


114 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


tliem  for  an  aquatic  life;  body  oval,  broad,  and  flattened;  legs 
flattened,  oar-like,  and  fringed.  The  larvte  are  called  water-tigers 
from  their  fierce  habits  and  long,  slender  ja"ws;  Avhen  about  to  pu- 
pate they  leave  the  v^-ater,  and  form  a  round  cell  in  the  bank. 
Dytiscus  fascweniris  Say;  Aciiius  mediatus  Say. 

Family  Haliplidse. — Antennae  10-jointed;   small  yellowish  water- 
beetles,  spotted  with  black.      Halipliis  fiisciatus  Aube. 


Fig.  129.— Dytiscus  marginal  is,  from  Europe.    A,  male,  with  smooth  elytra  and 
fore  tarsi  expanded  into  suckers;   B,  female. 

Family  Amphizoidse. — Aquatic  beetles  of  singular  structure,  with 
the  legs  adapted  for  walking.     AinpJdzoa  insolens  Lee. 

Family  Carabidae.  —  The 
ground-beetles  have  the  an 
tennse  ari.sing  at  the  side  of 
the  head  between  the  base  of 
the  mandibles  and  the  eyes. 
The  species  are  very  numer- 
ous; their  larvae  are  carnivo- 
rous, and  live  under  stones, 
etc.,  in  the  same  situations  as 
the  parents.  In  Harpalus 
the  body  is  broad,  while  in 
Casnonia  the  head  and  i)ro- 
thorax  are  ver}'  slender. 
Brachinus,  the  "  boral)ar 
dier"  beetle,  is  remarkable 
for  discharging  from  its  anal 
glands,  with  an  explosion,  a 
pungent  fluid.  Camhuti  scrra- 
FiG.  \^0.-Hnrpaluscaliqinosus.  natural  <w«  Say  is  a  typical  form,  as  is 
size;  larva  of  undetermined  species,  also  (Jalosomd  cnliduiii  Fabr. , 
enlarged  3  times.  which  climbs  trees  after  cat- 

erpillars.    Plaiynvs  cupriperDie  Say;  Brachinus fumansYixhv. 

Family  Cicindelidae. — AntenntB  on  the  front  above  the  ba.se  of  the 
mandibles;  ligula  small;  female  abdomen  with  6,  male  with  7,  seg 
ments. 


OBDEB  SIPHONAPTEBA.  116 

The  tiger-beetles  not  only  run  with  agility,  but  have  a  light,  swift 


IG.      131. 

—  Pla- 

FiG.   132.- 

Calosoma 

Fig.  133.— CTcindeto  hirti- 

tynus 

cupri- 

calidum. 

Natural 

collis.     Larva  of  an  un- 

penne. 

size. 

known  species. 

flight.  Their  larvae  bore  into  sand,  propping  themselves  up  in  their 
holes  by  two  dorsal  hooked  projections  on  the  ninth  segment.  Cer- 
tain South  American  forms  climb  trees  like  ants,  which  they  resem- 
ble.    Cicindela  vulgaris  Say,  G.  hirticollis  Say. 

Oeder  XIII.  SiPHONAPTERA*  {Aphaniptera,  Fleas). 

Although  the  fleas  resemble  flies  in  their  larval  stage  and 
in  the  mode  of  development  of  the  embryo,  yet  the  adults 
are  now  thought  to  present  such  a  combination  of  charac- 
|iers  as  to  throw  them  out  of  the  great  order  of  Diptera, 
where  they  have  been  allowed  to  remain  by  many  authors,  f 

*  Selected  Works. 

Guyon,  M.  Histoire  naturelle  et  medicale  de  la  Chique  {Rhynchopnon 
penetrans).     (Kev.  et  Mag.  de  Zool.,  1865-68.     Paris.) 

Karsten,  H.  Beitrag  zur  Keuntniss  des  Rhynchoprion  penetrans. 
186-4. 

Kraepelin,  K.  TJeber  die  systematische  Stellung  der  Puliciden  (Ham- 
burg, 1884). 

Landois,  L.  Anatomie  des  Hundeflohes  {Pulex  cant's).  (Dresden, 
1866.) 

Packard,  A.  S.  Development  of  Pulex  canis  (Mem.  Peab.  Acad. 
Sc.     Salem,  1872).     Also  the  Avritiugs  of  Weismann  and  Balbiani, 

Taschenberg,  0.     Die  Flohe  (Halle,  1880). 

f  Although  we  have  held  the  view  of  Haliday  and  Osten  Sacken 
that  the  fleas  have  affinities  to  the  dipterous  family  ]\l3'cetophilid8e, 
yet,  in  deference  to  the  researches  of  Kraepelin  and  tlie  opinion  of 
Brauer,  we  refer  them  to  a  separate  order;  though  in  their  embry- 
ology and  transformations  fleas  closely  resembleflies  like  Myceto- 
phila,  Simulium,  Chirouomus,  etc. 


116 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Besides  being  wingless,  the  antennae  are  3-14  jointed,  lodged 
in  a  cavity  behind  the  eyes;  their  mandibles  are  long  with 
serrate  edges;  the  maxillag  are  short,  the  palps  being  4-joint- 
ed,  and  the  labial  palps  are  also  4-jointed.  The  labrum  is 
distinct,  but  there  is  no  hypopharynx.  The  body  is  ovate 
and  much  compressed;  there  are  only  two  simple  eyes,  no 
compound  or  faceted  eyes.  The  edges  of  the  head  and 
prothorax  are  armed  with  stout  spines  directed  backwards, 
and  the  entire  form  of  the  body  and  arrangement  of  parts  are 
in  adaptation  to  the  peculiar  mode  of  life  of  these  insects, 
which  live  under  or  among  the  hairs  of  man  and  certain 
mammals  and  the  feathers  of  certain  birds. 

The  cat-flea  lays  eight  or  ten  eggs,  which  fall  on  the  floor 


Fig.  134.— Dog  or  cat  flea  (Fulex  canis).  n,  maxillary  palpi;  6,  maxillae  (should 
be  longer  and  pointed):  c,  labial  palpi;  d,  mandibles.  Larva  of  the  cat-flea: 
a,  antenna;  b,  end  of  the  body. 

and  there  hatch,  the  larvae  living  in  the  dust  and  dirt  on 
the  floor,  and  feeding  on  it.  In  about  twelve  days  after 
hatching  the  larvfe  spin  a  silken  cocoon,  the  pupa  being 
inactive,  and  remaining  in  this  state  from  eleven  to  sixteen 
days. 

A  serious  torment  of  sandy,  hot  regions  in  the  tropics  is 
the  jigger,  chigoe,  chique,  or  jiique,  Sarcopsylla  i)enetrans, 
which  during  the  dry  season  bores  into  the  toes  of  natives, 
especially  under  the  nails,  causing  a  distressing  sore. 

Family  Fulicidse. — With  the  characters  of  the  order.  Pitlex  irritam 
Linn.,  the  human  flea;  P.  canis  Duges,  the  flea  of  the  clog  and  cat. 


ORDER  DIPTERA.  117 

An  English  observer  has  seen  tleas  sucking  tlie  blood  of  caterpillars. 
Mr.  L.  O.  Howard  states  that  a  species  of  Ilea,  possibly  Pulex  galliiKS 


Fig.  1.35.— Jigger-flea,  a,  female  distended  with  eggs. 


Bouche,  kills  chickens  in  Florida,  puncturing  especially  the  heads  ot 
very  young,  downy  individuals. 

Order  XIV.  Diptera*  {Flies). 
Any  species  of  this  order  may  be  at  once  recognized  by 

*  Selected  Works. 

Becher,  E.    Zur  Kenntniss  der  Mundtheile  der  Dipteren  (Denk.  Akad. 

d.  Wissens.  Wien,  Bd.  xlv.,  1882). 
Brauer,  F.    Monojraphie  des  Oestriden  (Wien,  1863>. 
Systematische  Studien  aui  Grundlage  der  Dipteren-larven,  etc. 

(Akad.  d.  Wi.ssens.   Wien,  Bd.  xlvii.,  1883).  (Figs,  and  descriptions 

of  dipterous  larv?e,  and  list  of  all  works  and  articles  referring  to 

the  metamorphoses  of  Diptera.) 
Dimmock,  G.     The  anatomy  of  the  mouth-parts  and  -of  the  sucking  ap- 
paratus of  some  Diptera  (Boston,  1881). 
Loew,  H.,  and  Osten  Sacken,  C.  R  von.   Monograph  of  the  Diptera  of  North 

America,  1862-78  (Smithsonian  Inst  ).   Also  other  essays  and  papers. 
Hammond,  Arthur.    On  the  thorax  of  the  Blow-tly  {Musca  vomitoi'ui). 

(Linn.  Soc.  Journ. — Zoology,  vol.  xv.,1879.) 
Hansen,  H.  J.     Fabrica  oris  Dipterorum  (Copenhagen,  1883). 
Kraepelin,  K.     Zur  Anatomie  und  Physiologie  des  Riissels  von  Musca 

(Zeits  f.  Wissen   Zool.,  xxxix.,  683,  1883) 
McCloskie,  G.     Kraepelin's  Proboscis  of  Musca  (Am.  Nat.,  xviii.,  p. 

1334,  1884). 
Lowne,  B.  F.     The  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  Blow-fly,  Musca 

vomitoria  (London,  1870). 
Macquart,  J.     Dipteres  exotiques  nouveaux  ou  pen  counus  (3  vols,  en 

5  parties,  et  5  supplements.     Paris,  1838-55). 
Meigen,  F.  W.     Systematische  Beschreibung  der  bekannten  europai- 

schen  zweifliigeligen  Insekten  (7  vols.      Aachen    and    Hamm, 

1818-35). 
Meinert,  F.     Trophi  Dipterorum  (Copenhagen,  1881).     (In  Danish, 

with  abstract  in  Latin.) 
Sur  les  larves  eucephales  des  Dipteres  (Copenhagen,  1886).    (In 

Danish,  with  French  resume.) 

iContmued  on  next  page.) 


118  ENTOMOLOGY. 

its  having  but  a  single  pur  of  wings;  the  hinder  pair  being 
rudimentary,  and.  forming  the  balancers  or  halteres.  In 
many  flies  the  antennae  are  short  and  3-jointed,  the  last 
joint  being  furnished  with  a  bristle,  which  in  the  house-fly 
and  its  allies  is  feathery;  or,  as  in  the  mosquito  and  its 
allies,  the  antennae  are  long  and  many-jointed. 

Examining  the  house-fly  as  a  type  of  Diptera  in  general, 
B  A  we  notice  that  the  3-jointed  an- 

tennae, when  not  extended,  lie 
in  a  cavity  in  the  face.  The 
mandibles  and  maxillse,  so  well 
developed  in  the  mosquito  and 
other  piercing  or  biting  flies, 
are  aborted,  though  the  maxil- 
lary palpi  are  present  (Fig.  136, 
may;   Fig.    137,  ^j).      On  the 

Fig.  136.— 4,  front,  and -B,  side,  view       ,■■  -,         i      j.i  i        t„      „ 

of  head  of  house-fly.   oc,  simple,   other  hand,  the  under  lip,   or 

and  e,  compound,  eye;    ant,  au-  pqllpfl    T,rn"hn«pk    pnrl<5  in  twn 

tenna;   mxp,    maxillary  palpi;  Z,    SO-CaiRCl   piODOSClS,  enus  lU  T>WO 

tongue;  z«6,iabeiium.  Magnified.  ^^^^  (labclla),  adapted  for  lap- 
ping liquid  food.  The  structure  of  the  proboscis  is  very 
curious.  When  the  fly  settles  upon  a  lump  of  sugar  or 
other  sweet  object,   or  even  upon  the  back  of  our  hand 

Menzbier,  M.  A.  Ueber  das  Kopfskelct  und  die  Mundwerkzeuge  der 
Zweitiiigler  (Bull.  Soc.  imp.  Natiir.    Moscou,  1880). 

Osten  Sacken,  C.  R.  von.  Catalogue  of  the  described  Diptera  of  North 
America  (second  edition.  Wasbiugtou,  Smithsonian  Inst.,  1878). 
Also  numerous  papers  and  monographs  published  by  Smithsonian 
Inst.,  Am.  Ent.  Soc.,  etc. 

Scheiner,  J.  R.     Fauna  Austriaca.    Fliegen.    (i,  ii.     Wien,  1862-64.) 

Walker,  F.  List  of  the  Diptera  in  the  collection  of  the  British  Mu- 
seum (7  parts,  12mo.     1848-55). 

Wiedemann,  C  R.  W.  Au.ssereuropaische  zweiflligelige  Insekten  (3 
vols.     Hamm,  1828-30). 

Williston,  S.  W.  Synopsis  of  the  North  American  S3rrphid8e  (Bull.  31, 
U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.-    Washington,  1886). 

Dipterological  notes  and  descriptions  (Trans.  Am.  Ent.  Soc, 

xiii.,1886). 

On  the  N.  Am.  Asilidfe  (Trans.  Am.  Ent.  Soc,  xi.,  xii.,  1884-5). 

Also  articles  by  Bergenstamm  and  Loew,  Bigot,  Brauer,  Burgess, 

Fitch,  Gerstacker,  Leach,  McCloskie,  lliley,  Say,  Shimer,  Walsh, 

We-stwood,  and  Williston. 


ORDER  DIPTERA. 


119 


when  covered  with  perspiration,  it  unbends  its  proboscis, 
extends  it,  and  the  broad  knob-like  end  divides  into  two 


Fig.  137.— Head  and  proboscis  of  the  blow-fly.  e,  eye:  c.  epicranium;  6p,  basi- 
proboscis;  p,  maxillary  palpus;  pr,  chitinous  ridges  uniting  with  the  rudimen- 
tary maxilla;  Ip,  lower  labial  plate;  mp,  medi-,  dp,  disti-proboscis.— After 
Kraepelin. 

flat,  muscular  leaves  (Fig.  138,  B,  I),  which  thus  form  a 
broad  sucker-like   surface,   with  which   the  fly  laps    up 


Fig.  138.— Proboscis  of  the  house-fly.  ^,  right-side  view;  5,v!ewof  the  same  from 
above;  C,  semi  tubes  of  its  false  tracheae;  J57,  atooth;  /i',  arrangement  of  teeth 
between  roots  of  false  tracheae;  D,  two  of  the  false  tracheas  with  wrinkled 
■membrane  between.  In  A  and  B:  I.  labellum;  o,  operculum;  p,  palps;  /,  ful- 
crum; HI,  mentum.    Magnified. — After  McCloskie. 

liquid  sweets,  or  any  matter  which  seems  good  to  the  fly's 
mind. 

The  two  flaps  at  the  end  of  the  proboscis  are  supported 
upon  a  framework  of  strong  but  delicate  rods  which  act  as 
a  set  of  springs  to  open  and  shut  the  broad  flaps.  The  in- 
side of  this  broad,  fleshy  expansion  is  rough,  like  a  rasp, 
and,  as  Kewport  states,  "is  easily  employed  by  the  insect 


120 


ENTOMOLOar. 


in  scraping  or  tearing  delicate  surfaces.  It  is  by  means  of 
this  curious  structure  that  the  busy  house-fly  occasions 
much  mischief  to  the  covers  of  our  books,  by  scraping  off 
the  albuminous  polish,  and  leaving  tracings  of  its  depreda- 


FiG.  139.— Side  view  of  a  labellum.    ca,  chitinous  arch  supporting  the  false 
tracheae  (p<).— After  Kraepelin. 

tions  in  the  soiled  and  spotted  appearance  which  it  occasions 
on  them. 

The  thorax  is  somewhat  rounded,  and  though  composed 
of  three  rings,  yet  these  are  so  consolidated  that  it  is  at  first 
hard  to  identify  them.     The  prothorax  is  rudimentary,  the 


Fig.  140.— Thorax  of  the  house-fly.  pm,  pronotum;  prsc,  praescutum;  sc'  meso- 
sculum;  sci',  niesoscutellum ;  psct\  postscutellum ;  al,  insertion  of  tegula,  ex- 
tendiug  to  the  insertion  of  the  wings,  which  have  been  removed;  msphr,  meso- 
phragma;  h,  balancer  (halter);  pt,  patagia;  mtn,  raetanotum;  ejots,  epis', 
epis",  episternum  of  pro-,  meso-  and  meta-thorax;  epni',  epm",  meso-  and 
meta-epinieruni;  st',  st",  meso-  and  meta-sternum;  ex',  ex",  ex'",  coxae;  tr', 
tr",  tr'",  trochanters  of  the  three  pairs  of  legs;  sp',  sp",  sp'",  sp"",  sp'"", 
first  to  fifth  spiracles;  tg',  tg",  tergites  of  first  and  second  abdominal  seg- 
ments; m',  u",  urites. 

thorax  being  almost  wholly  formed    of    the    middle  ring 
(mesothorax).     The  latter  consists  of  three  large  upper 


OBDER  DIPTERA.  121 

pieces,  the  prcBscufnm,  scutum,  and  the  triangular  or 
shield-shaped  scutellnm  (Fig.  140,  set').  To  the  sides  of 
this  segment  are  attached  the  wings.  The  third  ring 
(metathorax)  is  but  partly  formed,  and  cannot  be  seen  from 
above.  It  supports  the  balancers  (Fig.  140,  //).  There  are 
also  broad  covering  scales  under  the  base  of  the  true  wings, 
called  the  tegula.  The  fly's  wing  is  broad,  thin,  aiid  trans- 
parent, and  strengthened  especially  along  the  front  edge  by 
slender,  hollow  rods  called  veins.  There  are  six  principal 
veins,  some  of  which  are  branched,  and  they  are  in  most 
cases  connected  by  a  few  cross- veins.  The  wings  move  with 
great  swiftness.  The  house-fly,  when  held  captive,  moves 
its  wings  330  times  a  second,  and  the  tip  of  the  wing  de- 
scribes a  figure  8  in  the  air. 

The  hum  of  the  fly  is  its  voice.     There  are  three  differ- 
ent tones  in  the  fly's  hum.     While  flying  the  tone  is  rela- 


h 


Fig.  141.— Hind  body  or  abdomen  of  house-fly.    a,  dorsal,  b,  ventral,  c,  side, 
view;  sp'-sp",  the  four  pairs  of  abdominal  spiracles.    Magnified. 

tively  low;  when  the  wings  are  held  so  as  to  prevent  their 
vibrating,  the  tone  is  higher,  and  a  higher  one  still  when 
the  fly  is  held  so  as  to  prevent  all  motion  of  the  external 
parts.  The  latter  tone  is  the  true  voice  of  the  fly,  and  is 
produced  by  the  spiracles  or  breathing-holes  of  the  thorax. 
Thus,  the  humming  sound  is  not  produced  by  the  motions 
of  the  wings  alone.  The  hind  body  (Fig.  141)  is  broad  and 
somewhat  conical  in  shape,  and  there  are  seen  to  be  only 
four  segments  when  seen  from  above  or  below;  but  in  the 
living  fly  three  more  may  be  detected,  which  can  be  thrust 


122 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


out  of  tlie  1)ody  like  the  joints  of  a  telescope,  and  form  a 
sort  of  egg-layer  (ovipositor).  Flies  have  no  sting,  though 
certain  kinds  can  bite  and  stab  with  their  mouth-parts. 

The  legs  are  long  and  slender,  and,  like  the  body,  they 
are  covered  with  fine  but  stiff  bristles.  There  are  five  toe- 
joints,  the  last  one  witli  two  claws.  Beneath  the  claws  is 
a  cushion  divided  into  two  lobes  or  divisions,  and  armed 
with  hairs,  which  are  tubular,  and  secrete  a  sticky  fluid, 
which  aids  the  fly  in  walking  upside-down  on  glass  windows 
or  the  ceiling  of  a  room. 

House-flies  are  attracted  to  horse-manure,  in  which  the 
young  live  in  great  numbers.     On  placing  a  fly  in  a  glass 


Fig  142.— The  early  stages  of  the  common  house-fly.  A.  dorsal,  and  B,  side, 
view  of  the  larva;  a,  air-tubes;  sp,  spiracle.  C,  the  spiracle,  enlarged.  F, 
liead  of  the  same  larva,  enlarged ;  6/,  labrum  (?);  nid,  mandibles;  ?)ia;,  maxillae; 
at,  antennae.  E,  a  terminal  spiracle,  much  enlarged.  D,  puparium;  sp,  spir- 
acle.    All  the  figures  much  enlarged. 

bottle,  she  laid,  between  6  p.m.,  August  12th,  and  8  o'clock 
the  next  morning,  120  eggs,  depositing  them  in  stacks  or 
piles. 

The  egg  is  long  and  slender,  cylindrical,  and  .04  to  .05 
of  an  inch  long  and  about  one  fourth  as  thick.  In  twenty- 
four  hours  after  it  is  deposited  the  larva  or  maggot  hatches, 
and  is  as  represented  in  Fig.  142,  A.  It  is  a  footless, 
smooth,  round,  white  worm,  with  the  merest  rudiments  of 


ORDER  DIPTERA.  123 

mouth-parts,  as  seeu  at  F.  In  a  day  it  groAVS  too  l)ig  for 
its  skiu,  which  bursts  and  peels  off;  this  is  again  repeated 
a  day  later.  The  maggot  thus  sheds  its  skin  twice,  and 
consequently  there  are  three  larval  stages;  the  third  stage 
lasts  three  or  four  days. 

When  about  to  transform  into  a  pupa  or  chrysalis,  the 
body  contracts  into  a  barrel-shaped  form,  as  seen  in  Fig. 
142,  D ;  its  skin  turns  brown  and  hard,  forming  a  case 
(called  piijjarium)  within  which  the  larva  changes  to  a 
chrysalis.  Remaining  in  this  stage  for  about  a  week  (five 
to  seven  days),  the  fly  is  formed,  and,  pushing  off  one  end 
of  its  pupa-case,  walks  nervously  about,  until  its  soft,  baggy 
wings  expand  and  become  dry,  when  it  takes  to  flight.  It 
thus  lives  a  fortnight  before  acquiring  wings,  and,  as  a  fly, 
may  live  a  few  weeks,  perhaps  until  frost;  but  in  a  few 
cases  may  pass  the  winter  within  the  house,  or  in  protected 
places  outside,  and  appear  out  of  doors  in  the  spring. 

There  are  probably  10,000  species  of  the  order  of  Diptera 
in  the  United  States  alone,  but  to  a  large  proportion  of 
them  the  preceding  description  will  in  general  apply. 
Hence,  by  studying  thoroughly  one  fly,  we  can  obtain  a 
good  idea  of  the  general  structure  of  all. 

In  certain  flies  (Blepharocerid^)  there  are  two  kinds  of 
females — one  kind  with  mouth-parts  adapted  for  piercing 
the  skin  of  animals  and  sucking  their  blood,  and  the  other 
with  mouth-parts  like  those  of  the  male,  the  maxillae  being 
absent.  In  the  females  of  other  flies  which  suck  blood,  the 
males  feed  on  honey. 

In  the  flies,  whose  mouth-parts  vary  astonishingly  in 
structure,  so  that  some  are  piercers  and  biters,  and .  others 
suckers  and  lappers,  there  is  also  a  great  variety  of  larval 
forms,  different  modes  of  metamorphosis,  and  consequently 
gieat  powers  of  adaptation  to  different  stations  in  life.  A 
few  species  live  in  the  sea,  many  in  fresh  water,  and  many, 
as  the  Tachina,  are  parasites  in  the  bodies  of  caterpillars 
and  other  insects.     There  is  everywhere  a  wonderful  har- 


124  ENTOMOLOGY. 

niony  between  the  different  kinds  and  their  surroundings, 
and  thus  the  order  is  rich  in  species  and  individuals. 

Darwin  says  that  the  sexes  of  Diptera  differ  little  in 
color;  the  greatest  difference  being  in  some  species  of  Bibio, 
in  which  the  males  are  blackish  or  quite  black,  and  the 
females  obscure  brownish  orange.  In  Elaphomyia  of  New 
Guinea  the  males  are  horned. 

Dr.  Williston  writes  us,  however,  that  there  are,  upon 
the  whole,  more  sexual  differences,  aside  from  those  in  the 
genitalia,  among  the  Diptera  than  in  any  other  order.  In 
the  majority  of  species  one  finds  but  little  difficulty  in 
distinguishing  the  sexes  by  secondary  characters.  In  a 
large  proportion,  also,  there  are  minor  colorational  differ- 
ences. Secondary  sexual  characters  occur  with  extreme 
rarity  in  the  female,  and  in  the  male  are  chiefly  confined  to 
the  head  and  legs. 

Sub-order  1.  Pupipara.^ — These  are  mostly  wingless,  de- 
graded forms,  which  are  born  as  pupae  from  the  body  of  the 
parent,  the  egg  and  larval  state  having  been  passed  within 
the  oviduct.  The  wingless  species  are  remarkably  spider- 
like, the  names  bat-ticks  and  bird-ticks  implying  a  resem- 
blance to  the  ticks. 

Family  Braulina. — Wingless,  eyeless,  minute  insects  with  a  large 
head.    The  Bee-louse,  Braula  c<£ca  Nitzsch. 


Fig.  143. — Bee-louse;  a,  its  puparium. 

Family  Nycteribidae. — The  bat-ticks  are  spider  like,  eyeless,  or 
with  four  ocelli;  with  a  small  head.  They  live  on  the  fruit-bats. 
Nycteribia  westiwodii  Gueriu  (Fig.  144).  None  exceed  two  linos  in 
length. 


ORDER  DIPTERA.  125 

Family  Hippoboscidae. — The  sheep-tick  and  horse-tick  are  known  by 
the  flattened  head  and  body,  and  by  the  stout  proboscis.     The 


Fig.  144.— Bat-tick.  Fig.  145.— Sheep-tick  and  puparium. 

sheep-tick,  Melophagus  omnus  Linn.,  is  often  very  troublesome  to 
sheep.  The  horse-tick  {Hippobosca  equina  Linn.)  is  winged,  with 
large  claws. 

Sub-order  2.  Cyclorhapha. — This  name  has  been  given 
to  this  subdivision  of  flies  from  the  fact  that  the  perfect 
flies  escape  from  the  pupa-case  through  a  circular  orifice. 
The  word  "  maggot"  is  especially  applicable  to  the  larvae 
of  this  group,  since  they  are  worm-like,  whitish,  without  a 
definite  head,  and  are  footless.  When  about  to  pupate 
their  bodies  shrink  into  a  barrel-shaped  form,  and  the  skin, 
instead  of  being  cast  off,  forms  a  dense  case  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  soft-bodied,  white  pupa  within. 

The  types  of  the  sub-order  are  such  insects  as  the  house- 
and  flesh-flies,  as  well  as  the  Syrphus  flies.  The  body  is 
short  and  thick,  the  abdomen  conical  and  composed  of 
from  five  to  eight  segments. 

The  arrangement  of  the  families  here  adopted  is  that 
of  Osten  Sacken's  "  Catalogue  of  North  American  Dijitera"' 
(second  edition,  1878),  while  the  characters  of  the  families 
are  taken  from  Loew's  '^  Monographs  of  the  Diptera  of 
North  America,"  Part  I.,  though  the  order  of  succession 
has  been  reversed,  the  enumeration  beginning  with  the 
lowest  and  ending  with  the  highest  family.  Certain  of 
the  smaller,  unimportant  families  are  mentioned  only  by 
name. 


126 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Family  Phoridse. — Antennse  1- jointed,  with  a  long  bristle;  femora 
flattened.  Phm-a  incrassnta  JVleigen,  of  Europe,  lives  in  hives  on 
decaying  bee-larvae,  and  different  species  feed  on  both  living  and 
dead  insects,  and  sometimes  decaying  vegetable  matter. 


Fig.  146.— P/io)o  incrassata.    a,  larva;  b,  pupa-case. 

Family  Asteidae. — Front  bristlj^  above.     Asteia  tenuis  Walker. 

Family  Phytomyzidae. — Front  bristl3\     Phytomym  clemaiidis  Loew. 

Family  Agromyzidse. — Front  with  strong  bristles;  middle  tibiae 
with  a  terminal  spur.     Agrornyza  coronata  Loew. 

Family  Oscinidse. — Front  without  bristles,  the  crown  having  only 
a  few  .short  ones;  border  of  the  mouth  without  vibrissfe,  which,  how- 
ever, are  represented  sometimes  b}'  a  small  hair  on  each  side. 
Middle  tibiae  with  small  spurs;  all  the  tibiae  without  an  erect  bristle 
on  the  outer  side  before  the  tip.  Costa  of  the  wings  without  bristles. 
The  auxiliary  vein  is  completely  wanting;  the  anterior  of  the  two 
small  basal  cells  is  united  with  the  discal  cell,  the  posterior  one  is 
totally  wanting.  The  species  of  C^hlorops  are  injurious  to  cereals, 
the  niaggots  living  in  the  stalk.     Meromyza  americana  Fitch. 

Family  Drosophilidae. — Front  with  bristles  above;  face  with  distinct 
sub-anteunal  furrows;  at  the  border  of  the  mouth  there  is  a  feeble, 
frequently  rather  indistinct  small  vibrissa.  Middle  tibiae  with  ver}' 
feeble  spurs;  on  the  outer  side  of  the  tibiae  there  is  either  a  very 
small  or  no  erect  bristle  before  the  tip.     Wings  without  bristles  on 


Fig.  147.— Apple-worm  and  its  fly. 
the  costa;  the  first  longitudinal  vein  is  exceedingly  abbreviated;  of 
the  auxiliary  vein  there  is  only  a  rudiment;  the  discal  cell  is  usually, 
but  not  in  all  genera,  united  with  the  foremost  of  the  two  small 
basal  cells.  Claws  and  pulvilli  very  small.  The  larva  of  an  unde- 
termined .species  of  Drosophila  (Fig.  147)  injures  stored  apples, 
while  Drosophila  (tmpelopliila  Loew  infests  pickled  fruit. 
Family  Geomyzidae. — Vibrissae  distinct.     Diastata  pulchrn  Loew. 


ORDER  DIPTERA. 


127 


Famil}^  Ephydrinidae. — Face  convex,  with  no  distinct  furrows  for 
the  reception  of  the  anteunye,  and  without  vibrissa,  though  fre- 
quently beset  with  hairs  or  bristles;  clypeus  very  much  developed; 
opening  of  the  mouth  large;  proboscis  thickened,  with  a  swollen 


Fig.  148. — A,  larva  of  Ephi/dm  calif ornicn :    a,  dorsal,  b,  under,  c,  side,  view  of 
the  pupa,     d,  Epliydra  hulophila ;  e,  its  pupa-case. 


chin.  Venation  of  the  wings  incomplete;  the  auxiliary  vein  dis- 
tinct only  at  its  base;  the  foremost  of  the  two  small  ba.sal  cells 
reunited  with  the  discal  cell.     Middle  tibiae  with  spurs.     The  sin- 


q: 


Fig.  Ii9.—  Piophila  casei,  parent  of  the  cheese  maggot. 


gular  larvfE  are  provided  with  a  long  caudal  respiratory  tube.     E. 
hulophila  Pack,    lives  in   the  brine  of  the  Equality   Salt  Works, 


128 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Illinois;  E.  californica  Pack,  in  Clear  Lake,  Cal.;  while  E.  gracilis 
is  abundant  in  Great  Salt  Lake,  Utah.  The  larvoe  and  pupa-cases  of 
E.  californica,  which  inhabits  Mono  Lake,  are  eaten  in  large  quanti- 
ties by  the  Indians. 

Famil}^  Diopsidse. — Eyes  situated  on  long  lateral  projections. 
Sl^lifyracepliala  brevicornis  Say. 

Family  FiopMlidse. — Front  with  some  small  bristles  above  only; 
clypeus  rudimentary,  legs  rather  stout.     Piop7iila  casei  hinu . 

Family  Sepsidae. — Head  rounded;  front  bristly;  border  of  the 
mouth  more  or  less  hairy,  the  foremost  hair  often  imitating  a 
vibrissa;  clypeus  rudimentary;  proboscis  short;  palpi  exceedingly 
small  or  wanting  Abdomen  tapering  towards  the  base.  Middle 
tibiae  with  distinct  spurs;  claws  and  pulvilli  small;  venation  of  the 
wings  complete;  the  auxiliary  vein  distinctly  separated  from  the 
first  longitudinal  vein;  the  two  posterior  basal  cells  rather  large. 
Sepsis  similis  Macquart. 

Family  O^omyziAsR—Opomyza  signicosta  Walk. 

Family  Heteroneuridae. — Front  with  long  bristles;  clypeus  not 
developed;  palpi  broad  and  proportionately  large;  legs  slender. 
Heteroneura  albimana  Mcigeu. 

Family  Phycodromidae. — Thorax  and  a'bdomen  fiat.  Cailopa  frigida 
Fallen.     Europe  and  North  America. 

Family  Sapromyzidae. — Venation  complete;  auxiliary  vein  of  the 
usual  structure,  frequently  very  near  the  first  longitudinal  vein; 
costa  of  the  wings  without  bristles  or  a  marginal  spine;  longitudinal 
veins  without  peculiar  hairs;  posterior  basal  cells  small.  Front  with 
a  single  row  of  bristles  on  each  side;  no  vibrissae  on  the  border  of 
the  mouth;    clypeus  rather  rudimentary.     Only  the  middle  tibiaj 


Fig.  150.— Louchasa.    a,  larva;  h,  pupa-case. 

have  terminal  spurs;  all  the  tibiae  with  a  small  erect  bristle  on  the 
outer  side  before  the  end.  Ovipositor  of  the  female  not  horny. 
Sapromyza  vulgaris  Fitch. 

Family  Lonchaeidae. — Like  the  Sapromj'zidae,  but  the  female  has  a 
horny,  3- jointed  ovipositor.  The  species  bore  in  the  bark  of  wil- 
lows, etc.     Ijoncluva  polita  Say. 

Family  Trypetidae. — Venation  complete;  the  end  of  the  auxiliary 
vein  runs  steeply  to  the  border  of  the  wing  and  becomes  obsolete; 
first  longitudinal  vein  always  with  bristles,  the  third  frequently,  the 
fifth  sometimes;  two  posterior  basal  cells  rather  large,  the  hindmost 


ORDER  DIPTERA.  129 

often  prolonged  to  a  point.  Front  on  each  side  with  two  rows  of 
bristles,  one  of  which  is  situated  more  above  and  in  front,  the  other 
below  and  exteriorly.  Border  of  the  mouth  with  no  vibrissas. 
Clypeus  none  or  rudimentary.  Proboscis  never  thickened.  Only 
the  middle  tibi*  with  spurs;  all  the  tibiae  without  an  erect  bristle 
on  the  outer  side  before  the  tip.  Ovipositor  horny,  consisting  of 
three  elongated  retractile  segments  like  the  drawers  of  a  telescope, 
the  last  of  which  ends  in  a  simple  point.  Trypeta  jloi'escenticB  Linn. 
Europe  and  North  America. 

Family  Ortalidse. — Venation  of  the  wings  complete;  auxiliary  vein 
separated  from  the  lirst  longitudinal  vein,  and  running  to  the  border 
of  the  wing  in  the  usual  way,  under  an  acute  angle,  and  remaining 
perfectly  distinct  in  its  whole  length;  third  longitudinal  vein  gen- 
erally with  coarse  hairs;  two  posterior  basal  cells  large,  and  the  out- 
ward one  frequently  prolonged  in  an  acute  angle.  Front  with 
bristles  on  the  upper  part  only;  no  vibrisste  at  the  border  of  the 
mouth;  clypeus  commonly  very  much  developed,  and  proboscis 
often  very  much  thickened.  Middle  tibiiB  alone  with  spurs;  no 
tibiae  with  an  erect  bristle  on  the  exterior  side  before  the  tip. 
Ovipositor  of  the  female  rather  flattened  and  horny,  consisting  of 
three  elongated  segments,  forming  three  drawers  like  those  of  a 
telescope,  and  ending  in  a  simple  point.  Pyrgota  undata  Wied., 
Tvitoxaflexa  Wied. 


Fig.  151.— Tritoxa  flexa,  onion  fly,  and  maggot. 


Family  Micropezidae.— Body  long  and  slender;  legs  short;  front 
with  bristles  near  the  crown.     Calobata  antennipennis  Say. 

Family  Psilidae.— Body  slender;  face  receding,  mouth  small. 
Pdla  bicolor  Meig.     Europe  and  North  America. 

Family  Sciomyzidae.— Front  with  two  bristles,  one  behind  the 
other,  on  the  side  before  the  vertical  bristles;  middle  tibiae  with  a 
greater  number  of  bristles  at  the  tip.  Sciomyza  albocostata  Fallen. 
Europe  and  North  America. 

_  Family  Helomyzidae.— Front  bristly  on  the  upper  half  only;  all  the 
tibiae  spurred.     Helomyzd  apmilis  Loew. 

Family  Cordyluridae.— Venation  of  the  wings  complete;  both  pos- 
terior basal  cells  of  considerable  size;  auxiliary  vein  well  separated 
from  the  first  longitudinal  vein,  which  is  bare.     Entire  side  of  the 


130 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


front  bristly;  anterior  border  of  the  mouth  with  strong,  iisnally 

numerous  vibrissse.    Tibiae  with  spurs.     ScatopJiaga  stercoi-aria  Linti. 

Family  Anthomyidae.  — Tliorax  with  a  complete  transverse  suture. 

Fourth  longitudinal  vein  straight  or  nearly  so,  hence  the  first  pos- 


FiG.  153.— Onion  fly.   a,  larva,  natural  size;  h,  the  same,  enlarged. 


terior  cell  is  fully  open.  Teguloe  rather  well  developed.  Phorbia 
ceparum  Meig.  (Fig.  152).  Homalomyin  scalaris  (Fabr.,  Fig.  153)  is 
the  privy-fiy;  the  maggots  of  this  and  //.  cunicularis  are  sometimes 
discharged  from  the  human  intestines  and  urethra. 

Family    Muscidae. — Bristle    of    the    antennae     entirely    plumose 

(Musca)  or  pectinated  (Sto- 
moxys).  Body  never  slender; 
thorax  short;  wings  with  the 
first  posterior  cell  only  .slightly 
opened,  or  else  closed  at  the 
border  of  the  wing;  tegulas 
large;  legs  stout.  All  the  fore- 
going families,  with  the  three 
following,  are  by  many  au- 
thors placed  in  one  great 
family  Muscidd';  but,  to  accord 
with  our  present  imperfect 
knowledge,  Loew  and  others 
have  provisionally  divided 
them  into  a  great  number  of 
small  families.  Mnsca  domentica 
Linn.,  the  house-fly;  Lucilia 
mn^ellarin  Fabr.  sometimes 
lays  its  eggs  in  wounds  in  the 
skin  of  man,  producing  hard 
red  fiuctuating  tumors;  its  maggot  is  called  the  "screw-Avorm;"  in 
one  case  300  of  these  maggots  were  found  in  or  dropped  from  one 
man's  nose  or  nasal  cavities,  where  it  had  destroyed  the  soft  parts, 
causing  death.  L.  cresar  Linn.,  the  blue-bottle  fly;  Calliphonvi,  ery- 
ihrocephaln  Meig.,  the  meat-fly;  Stovioxys  calcUrans  Linn,  has  a  long, 
slender,  hard  proboscis;  it  breeds  in  or  about  stables,  and  bites 
horses  and  human  beings. 


Fig.  153.— Homatomj/io  scalaris  if),  o, 
larva,  natural  size;  b,  enlarged.— After 
Curtis. 


ORDER  DIPTERA. 


131 


Family  Sarcophagidae. 


Bristle  of  the  antennae  plumose  or  hairy, 
with  the  apex  bare.  First 
posterior  cell  only  slightly 
opened  or  else  closed;  tegu- 
lae  large;  legs  stout.  Sar- 
coplmga  carnaria  Linn.,  the 
flesh-fly  of  Europe,  is  black, 
with  the  thorax  streaked 
with  gray,  and  the  abdomen 
1  checkered  with  whitish;  it 
is  viviparous,  the  eggs  being 

„      ,t.     „         t  a  hatched  before  they  are  laid. 

Fig.  \M.—Sarcophaga  satn-acenice .  c,  fly;  a,    q  ■     t?M  .  • 

larva;  b,  pupa-case ;  d.  g,  head  ;  e.  end  of  '^-  sarracenice  Itiie}  . 
body;  /.  spiracle  of  larva;  i,  antenna;  h.      Family  Tachinidae. — Bristle 
foot  of  fly.-After  Riley.  ^yf  the  anteuntc  bare,  or  with 

a  very  short  pubescence;    thorax  short;  tirst  posterior  cell   closed 

or  only  slightly  opened;  legs  short.     LarviB  parasitic  in  caterpillars 


Fig.  155.— Tachina  fly,  and  lai-va. 
and  other  insects,  living  on  the  fat  and  juices  of  their  host;  many 
injurious  caterpillars  being  destroyed  by  these  useful  flies. 

Family  Dezidae. — The  species  differ  from  those  of  the  Tachinidae 
in  having  the  bristle  of  the  antennie  either  pubescent  or  plumose; 
and  from  the  Muscidae  in  having  the  abdomen  bristly  above.  Dexia 
analis  Say. 

Family  (Estridae. — Antennae  inserted  in  rounded  pits;  the  middle 
part  of  the  face  exceedingly  narrow;  the  opening  of  the  mouth  very 
small;  the  mouth-parts  rudimentary.  Larvae  usually  very  thick, 
with  a  spiny  skin.  The  ox  bot-fly  (.Hypoderma  bovis  De  Geer)  appears 
from  June  to  September,  the  worms  occurring  during  May  and  in 
the  summer  in  tumors  on  the  backs  of  cattle,  until  in  July  they  fall 
to  the  ground;  they  remain  in  the  pupa-case  26-30  days.  The  mag- 
gots of  the  horse  bot-fly  (GasirophUus  equi  Fabr.)  hang  by  their 
mouth-hooks  to  the  walls  of  the  horse's  stomach. 

Family  Platypezidae. — Antennae  with  an  apical  bristle;  hypopygium 
symmetrically  turned  under  the  abdomen;  middle  tibiae  with  spurs; 
empodium  wanting.     Platypeza  anthrux  Loew. 

Family  Pipunculidae. — Small  flies  with  the  head  almost  entirely  oc- 
cupied by  the  eyes;  face  very  narrow.     Pipunculufi  cingulatus  Loew. 

Famil}'  Conopidae.— Wasp-like,  with  a  long  abdomen;  eyes  broadly 
separated;  proboscis  much  prolonged;  third  joint  of  the  autennte 


132 


ENTOMOLOGY 


with  an  apical  style  or  a  thick  dorsal  bristle;  parasitic  in  the  ab- 
domen of  wasps  and  bees.     Conops  tibialis  Say. 
Family  Syrphidae. — A  spurious  longitudinal  vein  between  the  third 


Fig.  156.— Bot-fly  of  the  ox. 


Fig.  156. 
a,  larva. 


a  Fig.  157. 

Fig.  157.— Horse  bot-worm,  enlarged. 


and  fourth  longitudinal  veins;  first  posterior  cell  closed;  no  depres- 
sion in  the  face  for  the  antennae.     Often  wasp-  or  bee-like  in  shape 


Fig.  159.  Fig.  160. 

Fig.  158.— Rat-tailed  pupa-case  of  Eristalis. 
Fig.  1.59.— 2lfej-odo?i  posticata.    a,  its  pupa-case. 
FiG.  160.— %rp/ms  (Mesograpta)  j>oii<MS,  and  Aphis-maggot,  natural  size. 

and  coloration  (Williston).  The  larvte  of  many  species  devour 
Aphides,  etc.,  and  may  be  observed  among  their  colonies.  The 
larva  of  Eristalis,  which  lives  in  stagnant,  brackish,  or  excremen- 
titious  water,  breathes  by  a  long  caudal  filament. 

Sub-order  3.    Orthorhapha. — In  this  group  the  pupa  is 

usually  free,  not  coarctate,  aud  escapes  from  the  larval  skin 


ORDER  DIPTERA.  13S 

through  a  T-shaped  opening,  or  rarely  tlirough  a  transverse 
rent  between  the  seventh  and  eiglith  abdominal  segments. 
The  following  families,  to  and  including  the  Xylophagidae, 
belong  to  Section  1,  Bracliycera,  in  which  the  antennae 
are  short  and  3-jointed: 

Family  Lonchopteridae. — Wings  with  the  three  basal  cells  of  moder- 
ate size,  aud  of  nearly  etjual  length;  antennae  with  an  ajjical  bristle. 
LoncJioptera  riixtrid  ]\Ieig. 

Family  Dolichopodidae. — First  basal  cell  rather  short,  the  second 
united  with  the  discal  cell,  the  third  small;  auxiliary  vein  running 
into  the  tirst  longitudinal  vein;  third  longitudinal  vein  simple,  the 
fourth  sometimes  furcate;  no  intercalary  vein.  Hypopygiuui  sym- 
metrical, bent  under  the  abdomen;  empodium  small,  membrana- 
ceous, linear.  Generally  metallic  green,  brisk,  small,  restless  flies 
which  devoiu'  other  insects.     Dolichojms  cuprinus  Wied. 

Family  Empidae. — Body  rather  long;  head  rounded,  the  eyes  in 
the  males  touching  each  other  above;  third  joint  of  anteunte  simple, 
with  a  terminal  style,  or  a  terminal  or  dorsal  bristle.  These  flies  are 
voracious,  attacking  other  flies.     Empis  armipes  Loew. 

Family  Cyrtidse. — Head  often  minute,  the  eyes  very  large  and 
meeting  above;  thorax  and  abdomen  much  inflated;  tegulfe  vaulted, 
very  large;  proboscis  often  very  long.  Certain  of  the  larvie  are  para- 
sitic in  spiders  or  their  cocoons.  Acrocera  bimaculata  Loew;  Lasia 
klettii  O.  Sacken. 

Family  Scenopinidae. — Three  basal  cells  very  large;  third  joint  of 
the  short  antenna;  without  style  or  bristle.  Larva  very  long  and 
slender;  occurring  under  carpets,  and  probably  feeding  on  carpet- 
moths  and  Psocids. 

Family  Therevidae. — Differing  from  Asilidte  in  the  labella  being 
not  horny,  but  fleshy;  antenna}  short,  With  a  terminal  style  of  varia- 
ble form,  sometimes  wanting.  Larva?  like  those  of  Scenopinus, 
with  the  segments  in  most  of  them  constricted,  the  body  appearing 
as  if  composed  of  nineteen  segments  behind  the  head.  Thereva  al- 
biceps  Loew. 

Family  Bombylidae. — Three  basal  cells  of  the  wing  much  pro- 
longed, with  usually  four  posterior  cells,  and  the  third  joint  of  the 
antennae  not  ringed;  the  proboscis  is  long,  and  the  body  is  in  most 
of  the  species  densely  hairy.  They  are  mostly  very  swift  on  the 
wing,  often  hovering  motionless  in  the  air,  and  then  darting  away 
as  quick  as  a  flash.  The  larvfE  of  Bombylius  are  parasitic  on  bees; 
those  of  SystmcJms  areas  O.  Sacken  and  Aphcebantus  mus  O.  Sacken 
feeding  on  the  eggs  of  locusts  (Camnula  and  Caloptenus). 

Family  Nemestrinidae. — Many  have  wings  with  numerous  cross- 
veins,  so  as  to  be  almost  net-veined.  In  the  African  Megistarhynchus 
longirostris,  a  fly  only  about  two-thirds  of  an  inch  in  length,  the 
proboscis,  which  it  uses  to  suck  the  nectar  from  the  flower  of 
Gladioli,  etc.,  is  nearly  three  inches  long.  The  European  Hirnio- 
neurn  obseura  deposits  her  eggs  within  the  burrows  of  Authaxia,  a 
Buprestid  beetle;  the  freshly- hatched  larva  diftering  very  singularly 
from  older  larvae,  the  sixth  to  tw^elfth  segments  being  each  provided 
with  a  pair  of  hooks,  and  they  are  supposed  to  attach  themselves  to 


134 


BNTOMOLOar. 


Fig.  161. -Robber  fly,  Erax 
bastai-dii.— After  Riley. 


a  large  beetle  (Rhizotrogus),  on  which  secoudaiy  hosts  they  are  ap- 
parently parasitic. 

Family  Midasidae. — Antennge  club-shaped,  the  third  joint  composed 
of  several  di.stinct  joints.     Midas  clavatus  Drury. 

Family  Asilidae. — The  robber-Hies  are  large  insects,  one  species 
being  two  inches  long;  third  joint  of  antennae  simple;  with  or  with- 
out bristle  or  style;  and  the  under  lip  horny;  they  are  the  most  sav- 
age and  rapacious  of  all  tlies,  their  beak  being  well  developed. 
Promachus  jitcMi  O.  Sacken  was  once  ob- 
served to  destroy  one  hundred  and  forty-one 
honey-bees  in  a  day;  La])hria  resembles 
humble-bees.  Asilusnov(e-scotm'^l?icq^.;  Erax 
basiardii  Macq.  (Fig.  161,  b,  pupa). 

Family  Leptidae. — Auteuute  with  the  third 
joint  simple,  with  a  simple  or  thickened 
styliform  bristle;  three  membranous  pads 
below  the  claws.     Leptis  nlbimrnis  Say. 

Family  Tabanidae. — Third  joint  of  the  an- 
tennae annulate,  and  always  without  style 
or  bristle;  eyes  large;  tegulte  large.  The 
females  of  the  horse-flies  alone  bite,  the  jaws 
and  maxillae  being  awl-like,  rendering  the 
bite  painful.  Tabanus  lineola  Fabr.,  Chry- 
sops  niger  Macq. 

Family  Acanthomeridae. — Very  large  flies, 

with  mouth-parts  consisting,  even  in  the  males, 
of  four  bristles.     Acantliomera  oellardii  Bigot. 

Family  Stratiomyidae. — Third  antenual  joint 
annulated;  costal  vein  only  reaching  the  middle 
of  the  wing;  tibiae  not  spurred.  The  larvae  live 
in  water,  earth,  or  decaying  wood.  Fig.  162 
represents  a  larva  found  living  in  abundance  in 
the  alkaline  waters  of  Clear  Lake,  Cal.  8tra- 
tiomyia  pkipes  Loew,  Sargus  decor'us  Say. 
Family  Coenomyidae. — Ccrnomyia  pallida  Say. 
Family  Xylophagidae. — Third  antennal  joint 
annulated;  costal  vein  encompassing  the  whole 
wing.    Xylopliagus  rufipes  Loew. 

The  succeeding  families  belong  to  Sec- 
tion 2,  Nematocera,  in  which  the  antennae 
are  long  and  many-jointed. 

Family  RhypMdae. — Three  ocelli;  wings  with 
a  perfect  discal  cell.     Rhyph^is  alternahis  Say. 

Family  Di"idae. — Dixa  davatn  Loew. 

Family  Tipulidae. — No  ocelli;  legs  very  long. 
The  crane-flies  form  an  extensive  group  whose 
larvae  live  in  soil,  mould,  fungi,  and  sometimes 
in  the  water;  they  are  represented  by  Tricliocera 
regelationislAnn.,  Tipiila  tririttata  Saj',  etc. 

Family  Psychodidae. — Body  with  long  coarse 
hairs;  wings  very  short  and  broad.  Very  small 
flies  seen  flying  and  leaping  on  windows,  etc.  Psychodes  alternata  Say. 


Fir.  162. —Larva  of 
Stratiomyia. 


ORDER  DIPTERA. 


135 


Family  Orphnephilidae. — OrpJi nepfiUa  ksiarca  Ruthe. 

Family  Chironomidae. — Body  very  sleuder ;  autenn;v  plumose; 
larvtv  aquatic,  sleuder-bodifd,  often 'blood-red.  A  species  of  Cera- 
topogon  is  the  midge,  the  "  Sii)inlii(m  nociviwi"  oi  Harris.  Tanypus 
anmdaius  !Say,  CJdronomus  nimriundus  Fitch. 

Family  Culicidae.— In  tin;  mosiiuitoes  the  females  have  the  mouth 
parts  very  long  and  slender,  and  highly  developed,  while  the  mandi- 
bles of  the  males,  ending  like  a  paddle,  are  not  adapted  foi  piercing; 
the  hj'popharyux  is  perforated  at  the  end  for  the  exit  of  the 
poison,  the  openuig  connecting,  according  to  JVIcCloskie,  with  a 
duct  leading  from  the  poisou-glanda  in  the  prothorax.     The  wings 


Fig.  163  —A,  larva;  B,  pupa;  a,  end  of  B  of  mosquito.— Burgess  del.  C,  Head 
and  mouth-parts  of  mosquito;  e,  eye;  «,  antennae;  Ibr,  labrum;  /^,  hypophar 
rynx;  m,  mandibles;  m.r,  maxillae;  mxp,  maxillary  palpus;  lb,  labium;  c, 
clypeus.— After  Dimmock. 


are  fringed,  and  the  veins  covered  with  scales.  The  larvfB  are 
aquatic,  breathing  by  a  respiratory  tube  (c)  at  the  end  of  the  body 
and  bearing  a  tuft  of  bristles,  while  the  pupte  are  aided  in  swimming 
by  two  broad  thin  paddle-like  caudal  appendages,  and  respire  by  two 
thoracic  tubes  (d).  The  larva  of  Corethra  is  beautifully  transparent, 
thus  escaping  destruction  by  its  enemies,  and  when  quiet  rests  in  a 
horizontal  position.      Ciilex  ciliatus  Fabr. 

Family  Blepharoceridae.— Bodj'  long  and  slender,  like  a  large  mos- 
quito iu'general  appearance;  wings  broad,  but  naked.  The  larvoe 
are  of  remarkable  shape,  and  at  tirst  do  not  look  like  those  of  a  tiy, 
since  the  body  is  divided  into  six  divisions  somewhat  like  an  Asellus, 
or  water  sow-bug.  They  adhere  to  smooth  rocks  in  swift  streams 
by  six  suckers  arranged  in  a  line  along  the  under  side  of  the  body, 
and  breathe  by  tive  pairs  of  tilamental  gills.  The  pupte  are  flat  be- 
neath, with  two  sets  of  club-shaped  breathing  appendages  situated 
on  the  thorax.  There  are,  moreover,  two  kinds  of  females,  one 
being  like  the  male,  not  sucking  blood.  Blepliarocera  fasciata  West- 
wood  is  native  to  this  country,  and  Paltostoma  twrentium  Mliller  to 
Brazil. 

Family  Bibionidse. — Prothorax  much  developed;  wings  without  a 
discal  cell;  coxa?  not  prolonged.  Larvoe  cylindrical,  often  injuring 
lawns  from  feeding  on  the  roots  of  grass.    Bibio  albipennis  Say. 

Family  Simulidae'.  — Body  short  and  thick;  head  bent  under  the 


136 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


large  humped  thorax;  the  mouth-parts,  jaws,  etc.,  well  developed, 

the  tly  giving  sometimes  a  sharp 
bite,  but  often  leaving  behind  a 
clot  of  blood  without  giving  pain. 
The  larvaj  live  in  running  streams, 
and  when  about  to  transform  make 
conical  pouch-like  cases  attached 
to  eel-grass,  etc.,  wherein  tney 
pupate.  The  black  Hy  (Simulium 
molestum  Harris)  abounds  in  the 
Northern  States,  and  probably  ex- 
tends to  the  arctic  regions.  The 
southern  bulfalo-gnat  (S.  pecuarum 
Riley)  and  the  turkej^-gnat  (/S.  meri- 
dionale),  owing  to  their  severe  bite 
and  the  great  multitudes  of  the 
females,  occasionally,  along  the 
Mississippi  River  from  St.  Louis  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Red  River,  kil] 
mules,  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  hogs, 
dogs,  cats,  setting  turkeys  and  hens, 
while  three  cases  of  death  to  human 
beings  are  recorded. 

Family  Mycetophilidse. — The  fun- 
gus-gnats have  a  rather  slender 
body,with  long  legs  and  coxae.while 
the  wings  have  but  few  veins  and  no  discal  cell.  Sciara  mali  (Fitch) 
lives  in  apples;  the  larva  of  another  species  of  Sciara,  called  the 


Fig.  164.— Black  fly  and  larva. 


Fig.  165. — Mycetobia  sor~ 
dida.  a,  larva;  6,  pupa. 


Fig.  166. — Hessian  fly.  a,  larva;  b,  pupa  — 
After  Fitch. 


"army-worm,"  living  under  the  bark  of  trees,  will,  when  about  to 
pupate,  form  processions  four  or  live  inches  wide  and  ten  or  twelve 


ORDER  LEPIBOPTERA.  137 

feet  long.  Mycelabia  sordida  Pack,  lives  iu  sour  sap  in  cracks  of  the 
bark  of  elm-trees. 

Fainlly  Cecidomyidae. — This  great  family  of  gall-guats  comprises 
mostly  minute  tlies,  which  have  but  few  veius  in  the  wings,  short 
coxse,  the  femora  slender,  and  the  tibioe  without  spurs.  They  insert 
their  eggs  iu  the  leaves  of  trees  and  stems  of  plants,  raising  a  gall  or 
tumor  within  w"hich  the  maggots,  often  pink  iu  color,  live.  The 
larva  of  Miastor  produces  young,  living  larvfe.  E.xamples  of  the 
family  are  the  wheat  midge,  Diplosis  tritki  (Kirby,  Fig.  338),  and 
Hessian  tly  (Fig.  387).  Cecidomym  grossularm  Fitch  causes  the  goose- 
berry to  turn  prematurely  red. 

Order  XV.  Lepidoptera  *  {Moths  and  Butterflies). 
The  beginner  in  the  study  of  insects,  after  dissecting  a 

*  Selected  Works. 

Abbot,  J.,  and  J.  E.  Smith.  The  natural  history  of  the  rarer  lepidop- 
terous  insects  of  Georgia  (i.,  ii.    London,  1797.  Fol.   Manj' plates). 

Boisduval,  J.  A.,  et  Guenee.  (Species  generales  des  Lepidopteres  (8 
vols.,  8vo.     Suites  a  Buffon.     Paris,  1863-74). 

Breitenbach,  W.  Der  Schmetterliugsrlissel  (The  butterfly's  tongue). 
(Jena.  Zeits.  f.  Naturw.,  1881.) 

Burgess,  E.  Contributions  to  the  anatomy  of  the  milk-weed  butter- 
fly, Banais  archippus  Oilem..  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  1880). 

Chambers,  V.  T.  Index  of  described  Tineina  of  North  America  (Bulletin 
Haj'den's  Survey,  1877).  Also  other  papers  in  same  Bulletin;  Can, 
Ent.,  etc. 

Clemens,  B.  Synopsis  of  North  American  Sphingidae  (Journ.  Acad. 
Nat.  Sc,  Phil.,  iv.,  1859). 

Tineina  of  North  America.    Edited  by  Stainton.    (Svo,  London, 

1873.     A  collection  of  all  his  papers  on  the  subject.)    Also  papers 
in  Proc.  and  Journ.  Acad.  Nat.  Sc,  Phil.,  1859-63. 

Cramer,  P.  Papillons  exotiques  (4  vols.,  4to,  448  plates.  Amsterdam, 
1789-91). 

Edwards,  H.  Pacific  coast  Lepidoptera  (i.-xxx.  Proc.  Cal.  Acad. 
Sc,  1873-78). 

Catalogue  of  U.  S.  described  lepidopterous  larvae  of  North 

America '(Bull.  Ent.  Div.  Dept.  Ag.,  Washington,  1888).     Also 
numerous  papers  in  Papilio,  i.-iii. ;  Eut.  Amer.,  etc. 

Edwards,  W.  H.  Butterflies  of  North  America  (i.-iii.,  many  pis. 
Pliila.,  1868-1888). 

Fernald,  C.  H.  A  synonymical  catalogue  of  the  described  Tortricidae  of 
North  America  (Trans.  Amer.  Eut.  Soc,  x.,  Phila.,  1883).  Also 
papers  in  Can.  Eut.,  Amer.  Nat. 

French,  G.  H.  The  Butterflies  of  the  Eastern  United  States  (Philadel- 
phia, 1886). 

Grote,  A.  R.  An  illustrated  essay  on  the  Noctuidae  of  North  America 
(London,  1883).  See  also  numerous  short  papers  in  Trans.  Amer. 
Ent.  Soc,  Bulletin  Buff.  Soc,  Bulletin  Hayden's  Survey,  Ca- 
nadian Entomologist,  etc,  1863-1887  (containing  descriptions  of 
about  1000  species). 

(Continued  07i  next  page.) 


138  ENTOMOLOGY. 

locust,   could  not  do   better  tluiu  to  examine  a  common 

Grote,  A.  R.     New  check-list  of  North  American  Moths  (1882). 
Guenee,  A.     Species  generales  des  Lepidopteres  (Noctuidse,  PhalaenidiB, 

juul  Pyiiilida-).     (Suite  a  Bution.     8vo.     Paris,  1852-57). 
Herrich-SchafFer,  G.    Lepidoptera  exotira  nova  (Regensburg,  1850-58). 
Hiibner,  J.     Sammlung  exotischer  Schmetterlinge  (5  vols.,  4to,  plates. 

Augsburg,  1806). 
Kirby,  F.     Synonymic   catalogue  of   diurnal  Lepidoptera    (of    the 

world),  v^ith  suppl.  (London,  1871-77). 
Lederer,  J.    Versuch  die  europaeischen  Lepidopteren  in  moglichst 

natiirliche  Reihenfolge  zu  stellen  (Verb.  Zool.  bot.  Ges.    Wien, 

1852-53). 

Die  Noctuinen  Europas  (Wien,  1857). 

Lintner,  J.  A.    Entomological  contributions  (i.-iv.    Albany,  1872-79). 
Morris,  J.  G.     Synopsis  of  Lepidoptera  of  North  America,  Part  I. 

(all  published).    (Smithsonian  Misc.  Coll.,  iv.,  1862.) 
Packard,  A.  S.     Notes  on  Zygsenidte  (Proc.  Essex  Inst.,  iv.,  1864). 
Synop.sis  of  the  Bombycida  of  the  United  States  (Proc.  Ent. 

Soc,  Phila.,  1864). 
Monograph  of  the  Phalaenidae  of  the  United  States  (Hay den's  U.  S. 

Geolog.  Survey).    (4to,  13  plates.    Washington,  1876.) 
Scudder,  S.  H.     Synonymic  list  of  North  American  butterflies  (Bul- 
letin Buffalo  Soc.  Sc,  1875-76).     Also  numerous  other  papers  in 

Proc.  and  Mem.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  1860-88. 
Butterflies :   their    structure,   changes,    and    life-histories    (New 

York,  1881). 
The  Butterflies   of  the  Eastern  United  States  and  Canada,  with 

special  reference  to  New  England  (4to,  many  plates.     1888—89). 
Smith,  J.  B.     Synopsis  of  the  genera  of  the  Noctuidae  of  North 

America  (Bull.  Brooklyn  Ent." Soc,  1882-83). 
Stain  ton,  H.  T.     The  natural  history  of  the  Tineina  (i.-xiii.    8vo,  with 

many  plates.    London,  1855-73). 
Staudinger,  0.     Catalog  der  Lepidopteren   des  europaeischen  Fau- 

nengebiets  (Dresden,  1871). 
StoU,  Casper.      Supplement  to  Cramer's  Papillons  exotiques  (4to. 

Amsterdam,  1787-91). 
Strecker,  H      Lepidoptera,  indigenous  and  exotic  (Reading,  Pa.,  1872). 
Stretch,  R.  H.     Illustrations  of  Zygaenidae  and  Bombycidae  (8vo,  plates. 

San  Francisco,  1874). 
Walker,  F.      List  of  the  specimens  of  lepidopterous  insects  in  the 

British  Museum  (London,  1848-67). 
Walsingham,  Thomas,  Lord.      Illustrations  of  typical  specimens  of 

Lepidoptera  Heterocera  of  the  British  Museum.     Pt.  IV.,  N.  A. 

Tortricida;.    (Loudon,  1879.) 

Pterophoridse  of  California  and  Oregon  (London,  1880). 

Walter,  A.     Palpus  maxillaris  Lepidopterorum  (Jen.  Zeits.  f.  Natur- 

wis.sens.,  Bd.  xviii.    N.  F.,  xi.  Bd.     Jena,  1884). 
Beitrilge  zur  Morphologic  der  Scbmetterlinge  (.Jen.    Zeits.    f, 

Natiirwissens.,  Bd.  xviii.     N.  F.,  xi.  Bd.     Jena,  1885). 
Weismann,  A.     Studies  in  the  theory  of  Descent.   Translated  by  R 

Meldola.     (London,  1881.     Plates.) 


ORDER  LEPIDOPTEBA. 


139 


Fig.  \&7.—Papilio  Turnus.    A,  egg,  magnified;  B,  caterpillar;  C,  the  same  just 
before  pupating;  D,  pupa  or  chrysalis.     Natural  size. 

Westwood,  J.  0.     Monograph  of  the  Castniidae,  etc.  (Trans.  Linn. 

Soc,  London,  1877). 

Synopsis  of  the  Uranidse  (Trans.  Zool.  Soc,  x.,  1879). 

Zeller,  P.  C.     Contributions  to   a  knowledge  of  North   American 

Heterocera  (Verh.  Zool.   Bot.   Ges.    Wien,   1872-74.    Ger.).     See 

numerous  other  papers  in  Isis,  and  publications  of  Stettin,  Berlin, 

and  Vienna  societies. 

Also  articles  by  A.  G.  Butler,  Comstock,  H.  Edwards,  Harris, 
Hulst,  Moeschler,  Morrison,  Packard,  Riley,  Robinson,  J.  B.  Smith, 
Walsh,  and  others. 


140  ENTOMOLOGY. 

butterfly  and  watcli  its  transformatious  from  the  caterpillar 
to  the  winged  state. 

We  will  select  for  study  one  of  our  largest  and  most  com- 
mon butterflies,  the  yellow  and  black  swallow-tail  {Pajnlio 
Turnus)  (Fig.  167).  It  may  be  found  flying  about  lilacs, 
etc.,  from  the  first  of  June  until  midsummer. 

We  shall  see  in  this,  as  in  most  butterflies,  how  large  the 
wings  are  in  proportion  to  the  body,  and  that  they  are  so 
thickly  covered  with  microscopic  scales  as  to  be  ojmque, 
while  the  body  is  also  covered  with  fine  slender  scales  like 
hairs.  We  shall  see,  also,  that  the  form  of  the  body  is  more 
or  less  spindle-shaped,  well  adapted  for  flying  rapidly 
through  the  air.  The  head  is  small,  not  wider  than  the 
mid  body,  while  the  hind  body  is  narrower  than  the  mid 
body  and  tapers  to  a  rounded  point. 

Now,  looking  at  the  head,  which  in  front  and  above  is 
thickly  covered  with  hairs,  we  notice  the 
large  compound  eyes,  and  that  from  between 
them  arise  the  antennge.  These  are  very 
slender,  and  end  in  a  knob.  There  is  in  many 
butterflies  a  naked  space  on  the  under  side 
of  the  knob,  in  which  are  minute  pits,  which 
are  probably  organs  of  smell.  There  is  but 
a  single  pair  of  mouth-feelers  (palpi)  in  the 
butterflies,  though  two  pairs  exist  in  many 
moths.  These  are  the  palpi  of  the  under  lip, 
Fig.    168  -  Side  which  are  held  up  in  front  of  the  face.     Be- 

view  of  head  or  _         ^ 

a  butterfly  (Eu-  twceu  them  is  the  tongue,  which  is  a  long 

damus  Tityrus)  i  •    n  •  -i     i 

showing  anten-  slender  black  tube,  which  at  rest  is  coiled  up 
ng    .    j.^^  ^  watch-spring  between  the  feelers.     If 
one  will  watch  a  butterfly  at  a  flower,  it  may  be  seen  unroll- 
ing its  tongue  in  order  to  probe  the  bottom  of  the  corolla. 

The  tongue  is  the  only  means  by  which  the  butterfly  can 
obtain  food.  It  sips  or  sucks  up  the  nectar  of  flowers,  or 
drinks  water,  imbibing  it  througli  this  tube.  The  jaws  are 
absent,  except  in  the  Tineids,   where  they  are,  however. 


ORDER  LEPIDOPTERA. 


141 


rudimentary.     Moreover,  the  butterfly  needs  little  food;  it 
only  lives  long  enough  to  lay  its  eggs,  when  it  dies. 

By  looking  at  our  specimen  after  the  scales  have  been 
rubbed  off  the  head,  which  may  be  done  by  a  stumpy  hair- 


FiG.  169.— Butterfly's  head,  denuded  of  scales.— After  Burgess. 

pencil,  it  will  appear  somewhat  as  in  Fig,  169  of  the 
Archippus  butterfly.  This  represents  a  front  view  of  the 
head:  a,  a  are  the  antennae;  oc,  the  eyes;  d  is  the  front  or 
clypeus,  and  lb  indicates  the  upper  lip,  while  the  jaws  are 
wanting;  tk  is  the  tongue,  cut  off  to  show  the  tube  in  the 


middle. 


How  the  latter  works  can  be  seen  by  looking  at 


Fig.  170.— Section  through  the  tongue  of  a  butterfly.— After  Burgess. 

Fig.  170,  which  represents  a  cross-view  of  that  of  the  Da- 
nais  butterfly.  The  maxillae  in  some  moths,  such  as  the 
great,  green,  tailed  Luna  moth,  are  short  and  separate,  like 


142 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


a  pair  of  blades.  Now  the  tongue  or  proboscis  of  the 
butterfly  is  formed  by  the  union  of  these  two  blade-like 
maxillas;  and  they  are  so  closely  united  together  as  to  form 
a  hollow  tube  or  proboscis  (c),  through  which  the  nectar  is 


Fig.  171 —Fore  and  hind  wings  of  a  butterfly,  showing  the  venation,  a,  costal 
vein;  6,  subcostal;  6',  6^,  6',  b*,  6',  the  five  subcostal  veinlets;  c,  the  inde- 
pendent vein  (it  is  sometimes  a  branch  of  the  subcostal  and  sometimes  of  the 
median  vein);  d,  median  vein;  d',  d^,  d^,  d*,  the  four  median  veinlets;  e,  sub- 
median  veiu;  /,  internal  vein;  /i,  interno-median  veinlet,  rarely  found;  6  and 
d  are  situated  in  the  "  discal  cell."    Lettering  the  same  in  both  wings. 

sucked  with  the  aid  of  the  pharyngeal  sac,  which  serves  as 
a  pumping  organ  to  suck  the  liquid  food  through  the  pro- 
boscis, and  force  it  backwards  into  the  digestive  canal. 

The  wings  of  butterflies  are  beautifully  painted  and  or- 
namented. If,  however,  we  examine  the  scales  separately 
under  the  microscope,  we  shall  see  that  they  are  colorless. 
The  variety  of  color  on  the  different  spots  and  bands  is 
due  to  the  arrangement  of  the  scales,  i.e.,  to  the  interfer- 
ence of  the  rays  of  light  passing  through  them. 

In  the  butterfly,  as  in  the  house-fly,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  front  edge  of  the  fore  wings  is  strengthened  by  two 


ORDER  LEPIDOPTERA. 


143 


veins,  one  of  which  has  three  branches  running  parallel  with 
the  edge.  As  the  weight  or  pressure  of  the  air  while  mak- 
ing the  stroke  is  borne  chiefly  by  the  front  of  the  wing,  it 
needs  these  rods  to  strengthen  it. 

The  scales  of  a  butterfly's  wing  differ  much  in  shape  on 
different  parts  of  the  body.  On  the  wing  of  the  Oecropia 
moth  the  hairs  of  the  body  and  base  of  the  wing  are  seen 
to  pass  into  broad  scales,  represented  in  Fig.  172.     They 


Fig.  173.— Arrangement  of  the  scales  on  a  moth's  wing,    o,  some  enlarged. 

are  attached  to  the  wing  and  laid  partially  over  one 
another  like  the  tiles  on  a  roof,  being  inserted  in  irregular 
rows.* 

The  caterpillar  or  larva  of  the  Turnus  butterfly  may  be 
found  on  the  apple  or  birch  and  other  trees.  In  July  the 
butterfly  lays  a  nearly  round  egg  (Fig.  167,  .4)  upon  the 
leaf,  and  by  the  end  of  summer  one  may  find  the  great 
green  worm  in  the  same  place.  The  body  is  round,  fat, 
and  smooth;  there  are  twelve  segments  behind  the  head. 
From  the  top  of  the  segment  next  to  the  head  is  projected. 


*  According  to  Dr.  Royston-Piggott,  the  foot-stalk  or  perlicel  of  a 
scale  consists  of  two  membranes  united  to  form  a  tube  which  gathers 
up  and  distributes  the  nourishing  fluid  among  the  striations  or  ribs  of 
the  scale.  The  scale  has  been  resolved  into  a  series  of  latticed  ribs, 
connected  by  irregular  cross  bars;  each  rib  displaying  double  black 
margins,  and  the  cross- bars  often  beaded.  The  scales  of  Lepidoptera 
make  admirable  tests  for  the  highest  powers  of  the  microscope. 

In  the  scales  of  MorpJinriipris  "  the  cross-bar  structure,  like  all  these 
azure  blues,  is  most  delicate,  and  produces  glorious  color."  Papilio 
troilus  "  is  worth  close  investigation  for  reticulated  bars."  (Micro- 
scopical Advances,  xxvii.;  English  Mechanic,  Nov.  11,  1887.) 


144 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Fig.  173. — a,  egg  of  Pieris  ole- 
racea;  b,  Cotias  philodice;  c, 
Vanessa  atalanta.  —  After 
Scudder. 


when  the   caterpillar   is  disturbed,  a   singular  V-shaped 

yellow  organ,  which  sends  out  a 
disagreeable  smell,  and  is  thought 
to  be  repugnant  to  birds,  ichneu- 
mon insects,  etc.  On  each  side 
of  the  third  segment  is  a  large 
eye-like  spot,  peculiar  to  this 
species.  There  are  along  the 
body  nine  pairs  of  spiracles,  one 
on  the  segment  next  to  the  head, 
and  eight  pairs  on  the  fourth 
to  eleventh  segments,  or  what 
correspond  to  the  first  eight  abdominal  segments  of  the 
butterfly,  the  latter  having,  however,  but  seven  pairs  of 
spiracles  on  the  hind  body. 

The  caterpillar's  eyes  are  minute,  simple  eyelets,  three  or 
four  on  each  side  of  the  head,  and  only  useful,  probably,  in 
distinguishing  day  from  night.  This  is  useful  information, 
considered  from  a  caterpillar's  standpoint,  as  most  of  them 
hide  by  day  and  feed  by  night.  That  caterpillars  are  very 
hearty  eaters  goes  without  saying.  They  perform  prodigies 
of  gastronomic  skill.  Did  all  the  caterpillars  which  are 
born  into  the  world  sui'vive  the  various  ills  and  enemies 
they  are  heirs  to,  not  a  green  thing  would  be  left  on  the 
face  of  the  earth.  The  locust's  mission  would  be  ended. 
It  appears  that  when  there  are  several  broods  of  caterpillars, 
those  of  the  later  broods  are  hardier  than  those  of  the  first 
generation. 

The  Jaws  of  the  caterpillar  are 
large,  black,  horny  appendages, 
and  are  toothed  on  the  cutting 
edge,  so  as  to  pass  through  a  leaf 
somewhat  like  a  circular  saw  (Fig. 

174    md).  Fig.  174.— Mouth-parts  of  cater- 

'            ■'*        .  pillar,    a.  antennae:  the  ocelli 

The    silk     is    spun  through    the       placed   outside;   Ib,   labrum; 

.        .  »     1              1            '"'•   labium:    vix,  maxilla.— 

tongue-like  projection  ot  the  under     After  Burgess. 

lip  (Fig.  174,  s).     It  is  secreted  in  two  long  sacs  within 


ORDER  LEPIDOPTERA.  145 

the  body.  The  third  is  drawn  out  by  the  two  fore  feet, 
which  are  three-jointed  and  end  in  a  single  claw.  The  legs 
on  the  hind  body,  sometimes  called  prop-legs,  are  fleshy, 
not  jointed,  and  end  in  a  crown  of  hooks  which  curve  out- 
ward, enabling  the  caterpillar  to  firmly  grasp  the  edge  of 
the  leaf  or  twig  of  its  food-plant. 

Most  caterpillars  are  moi'e  or  less  hairy  or  spiny,  ren- 
dering them,  when  especially  so,  disagreeable  to  birds;  be- 
sides this,  they  are  bright-colored,  so  that  birds  readily  rec- 
ognize them  and  waste  no  time  over  them,  but  search  for 
the  common  green  smooth-bodied  ones,  which  are,  however, 
so  difficult  of  detection  by  the  birds  that  plenty  are  left  to 
become  moths  or  butterflies.  Certain  caterpillars,  as  the 
currant-worm,  though  smooth-bodied,  are  brightly  spotted; 
these,  however,  the  birds  find,  have  a  disagreeable  taste. 
The  bright  colors  are  thus  danger-signals,  hung  out  to  warn 
the  birds. 

We  will  now  suppose  that  the  caterpillar  has  got  its 
growth,  and  is  about  to  change  to  a  chrysalis.  When  fully 
fed  the  caterpillar  stops  eating,  and  in  a  day  or  two  throws 
off  the  caterpillar's  skin  and  becomes  a  pupa  or  chrysalis. 
The  latter  word  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  meaning  golden, 
in  allusion  to  the  golden  spots  which  adorn  the  chrysalids  of 
some  butterflies.  Our  Turuus  caterpillar,  before  pupation, 
as  the  act  of  becoming  a  pupa  may  be  called,  becomes  short 
and  thick,  with  the  head  drawn  in.  It  spins  an  open-work 
platform  of  silk  on  the  under  side  of  a  leaf;  its  tail  is  firmly 
anchored  in  the  mass  of  silk  by  certain  hooks  at  the  end, 
and  meanwhile  it  throws  around  its  body  near  the  head  a 
strong  silken  cord  as  a  support.  Our  Turnus  chrysalis  is 
not  bright-colored,  but  allied  in  color  to  a  dry  leaf  or  piece 
of  wood,  so  as  to  be  easily  overlooked  by  birds.  Here  it 
remains  through  the  winter  until  the  end  of  the  succeeding 
May  or  first  of  June,  when  the  butterfly  within,  which  has 
been  growing  rapidly  during  the  preceding  warm  days,  by 
its  convulsive  struggles  bursts  the  pupal  skin  on  the  back, 
forcing  the  covering  of  the  head  and  mouth-parts  aside,  and 
10 


£^^5. 


Fig.  175. — ^Transformations  of  Danais  archippus, 
C,  a,  b,  c,  semi- pupal  stages;  D,  pupa.— After  Riley. 


A,  egg,  enlarged;  B,  larva; 
(To  face  page  147.) 


148  ENTOMOLOGY. 

draws  itself  out  of  the  rent.  It  stands  on  its  feet  for  a  few 
minutes,  while  its  wings  expand,  and  then  takes  flight  and 
sails  gracefully  through  the  air  on  its  broad  wings. 

Figs.  175  and  176  illustrate  the  metamorphosis  of  Danais 
arcUppus  from  the  egg  to  the  butterfly;  but  Fig.  175,  c, 
is  incorrect  so  far  as  it  shows  how  the  partly  formed 
chrysalis  is  suspended.  According  to  Eiley's  latest  observa- 
tions and  figures,  after  the  caterpillar  has  spun  the  little 
button-like  mass  of  silk,  as  at  a,  it  entangles  in  the  silk  the 
hooks  both  of  its  last  pair  of  legs,  and  those  of  the  "  supra- 
anal  plate,"  situated  above  the  legs,  and  which  becomes  the 
stout  spine  at  the  end  of  the  chrysalis,  called  the  "cre- 
master."  The  caterpillar  then  works  its  skin  back  to  the 
end  of  the  body,  as  at  b.  The  anal  legs  of  the  larva  are 
represented  in  the  chrysalis  by  two  sustaining  knobs  which 
catch  in  the  retaining  membrane,  and  with  the  aid  of  a 
rectal  ligament  suspend  the  pupa,  and  prevent  it  from 
falling  at  the  critical  point  when  the  cremaster  is  withdrawn 
from  the  larval  skin.  Finally,  while  temporarily  supported 
by  the  two  elastic  suspensory  membranes,  tfte  chrysalis  so 
twists  and  turns  itself  that  the  booklets  of  the  cremaster 
become  securely  fastened  in  the  silk  button,  and  the  old 
larval  skin  is  discarded,  the  chrysalis  appearing  as  at  D. 

In  most  Lepidoptera  the  males  emerge  and  fly  about  for 
some  time  before  the  females.  Darwin  infers  that  the 
adult  males  of  most  Lepidoptera  generally  exceed  the  fe- 
males in  number,  "  whatever  the  proportion  may  be  at  their 
first  emergence  from  the  egg"  (Descent  of  Man,  i.  305). 

The  "  assembling"  of  moths  is  a  curious  fact.  If  a  vir- 
gin silk-worm  moth  be  exposed  in  a  cage,  great  numbers  of 
males  will  collect  about  the  box.  It  is  so  with  some  beetles, 
as  Prionus  hi'encorMS  and  probably  other  longicorns. 

The  wings  of  the  two  sexes  of  Lepidoptera  often  differ 
in  venation,  and  usually  in  outline;  while  the  males  of 
certain  South  American  butterflies  have  tufts  of  hair  on 
the  edges  of  the  wings,  and  horny  excrescences  on  the 
disks  of  the  hinder  pair.     The  males  of  certain  butterflies 


ORDER  LEPIDOPTERA. 


149 


are  in  parts  clothed  with  peculiar  hairs,  called  androconla 
(Fig.  178).  Fritz  Muller  has  shown  that  the  males  of 
certain  butterflies  are  rendered  attractive  to  the  other  sex 
by  secreting  odorous  oils  of  the  ether  series. 

Certain  hair-like  scales  on  some  butterflies  give  off  an 
odor,  in  Pier  is  7iapi  like  that  of  citrons,  while  P.  rapce 
is  slightly  odorous;  and  Midler  has  observed  in  the  male 
of  Didonis  biblis  three  different  odors  in  differsnt  parts 
of  the  body.  The  females  of  Callidryas  have  in  the  end 
of  the  body  highly  odorous  glands,  while  the  males  give 
off  a  musk-like  odor  from  the  same  parts. 


Fig.   177.— Scent-tufts  of  moths. 
acrcea;  2,  Pyrrharctia  Isabella.- 


1,   Leucarctia 
-After  Smith. 


Fig.  178.— a.  scent-scales  or 
androconia;  6,  ordinary- 
scale  of  Lycaena  butter- 
fly. Highly  magnified. — 
After  Scudder. 


Peculiar  white  or  orange-colored,  hairy,  thread-like  pro- 
cesses have  been  found  protruding  from  narrow  openings 
near  the  end  of  the  hind  body  of  certain  moths  (Fig.  177), 
which  give  out,  according  to  Mr.  J.  B.  Smith,  "an  intense 
odor,  somewhat  like  the  smell  of  laudanum." 

While  there  is  great  uniformity  in  the  shape  of  the  body 
of  butterflies  and  moths,  their  habits  are,  within  narrow 
limits,  quite  diverse.  Some  fly  by  day,  others  at  dusk, 
others  by  night.  The  great  number  of  species,  of  which 
there  are  estimated  to  be  35,000,  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the 
variety  in  the  food-plants  on  which  the  cateri^illars  feed. 
Nearly  if  not  every  species  of  plant  affords  room  and  board 


150 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


for  one  or  more  species  of  caterpillar.  The  oak  nourishes  in 
this  country  alone  about  200  species;  nearly  100  different 
kinds  feed  on  evergreen  trees,  eating  the  buds  and  leaves, 
boring  in  the  branches,  and,  in  short,  attacking  the  tree  in 
a  variety  of  ways,  so  that  there  is  a  place  and  abundance  of 
food  for  each  kind  of  caterpillar.  In  their  chrysalis  state 
they  are  comparatively  safe  from  harm.  Nature  has  thus 
favored  the  Lepidoptera  above  all  other  insects  except  the 
flies,  beetles,  and  Hymenoptera.  From  their  number  and 
variety,  their  beauty  of  color,  attractiveness  of  form,  and  the 
ease  with  which  they  can  be  collected  and  their  caterpillars 
reared,  the  butterflies  and  moths  are  the  favorites  of  ento- 
mologists. 

The  larger  moths  and  the  butterflies  are  for  convenience 
called  Macrolepidoptera,  and  the  species  of  the  lower  fam- 
ilies, from  the  Pterophoridae  to  the  Pyralidae,  are  called 
Microlepidoptera. 
Family  Pterophoridae. — The  plume-winged  moths  are  recognized  by 

their  fissured  and  plume  like  wings; 
the  body  is  unusually  slender,  with 
long  antennae  and  legs.  The  larvae 
are  spindle-shaped,  rather  hairy;  the 
hairs  are  often  hollow  and  secrete 
a  viscid  fluid  which  exudes  in  a 
dew-like  drop  from  the  end.  They 
spin  no  cocoon,  but,  fastening  them- 
selves within  a  curled  leaf  by  their 
tail,  shed  their  larval  skin  and  ap- 
pear in  the  chrysalis  state.  Ptero- 
phorus  periscelidactylus  Fitch 
abounds  on  the  grape-vine,  eating 
the  young  leaves  and  fruit-buds. 

Family  Tineidae. —  This  great 
group  (which  is  perhaps  rather  a 
super-family  with  several  families 
included  in  it)  is  characterized  by 
the  slender  body,  long,  narrow, 
often  pointed  wings  of  both  pairs, 
with  long  fringes,  by  their  usually 
minute  size,  and  their  rich,  often 
metallic  markings.  Those  with 
broad,  blunt  wings,  like  Tortricids, 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  long, 
slender,  pointed  labial  palpi.  It  is 
difficult  to  give  the  family  char- 
acters of  the  larvae;  usually  slender 
aod  slightly  spindle-shaped,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  separate  them 


Fig.    179.  —  Grape    Pterophorus 
larva;  b,  pupa;  d,  moth. 


ORDER   LEPIDOPTERA. 


151 


from  slender-bodied  Tortricid  caterpillars;  those  whicli  "mine"  the 
leaves  of  plants  are  much  flattened.  Some  Tineid  caterpillars  feed  in 
the  stems  or  roots  of  plants,  a  few  produce  galls,  while  many  live  in 
*oIded  leaves  of  herbs  and  trees. 


Fm.  180.— Wings  and  Fig.  181.— The  Angouinois  grain  moth 

head    of    a   Tineid:  and  larva. 

Batracliedra. 

The  genus  Nepticula  contains  the  smallest  known  moths.  The 
Angoumois  grain  moth  (Fig.  181)  eats  the  interior  of  wheat-grains  in 
granaries;  it  is  grayish  yellow,  with  two  or  three  darker  spots  on  the 
fore  wings.  Tinea  pellioneUa 
Linn.,  the  clothes  moth  (Fig. 
183),  as  a  caterpillar  makes  a 
case  of  woolly  fibres,  and  is  a 
universal  pest.  So  also  is 
Tinea  tapetzella  Linn.,  which 
is  black  on  the  basal  half  of  the 
fore  wings,  but  while  on  the 
outer  half;  destroys  woollens. 
liuea  bisellieMa  is  a  pale  yellow- 
ochre  moth,  with  a  reddish-  Fig.  182.— Clothes  moth,  o,  larva  ;  fe,  its 
ochre     head  ;     its    caterpillar  case,  and  c.  its  pupa, 

makes  no  case,  though  destructive  to  woollens,  fur,  dried  insects,  etc. 
Tinea  graneUa  Linn.  (Fig.  183)  is  a  universal  wheat  pest. 

Family  Tortricidae. — The  leaf -rolling  moths  are  rather  stout  bodied, 
with  wide,  oblong  wings,  the  costal  edge  of  the  fore  wings  being  often 
sinuous;  the  antennae  are  simple,  or  finely  ciliated,  and  verj^  rarely 
pectinated;  the  palpi  are  curved  up  against  the  front  of  the  head,  or 
extended  forwards,  and  are  sometimes  two  or  three  times  as  long  as 
the  head;  the  head  above  is  rough  with  erect  scales,  while  the  wings 
are  often  crossed  with  irregular  lines  of  tufts,  and  there  is  a  noticeable 
tuft  at  the  end  of  the  abdomen.  The  legs  are  of  medium  size  and 
length,  and  in  a  few  species  the  hind  tibia;  are  densely  clothed  with 
hair-like  scales,  while  in  some  cases  the  males  have  a  long  tuft  of 
hairs  lying  in  a  groove  along  the  inside  of  the  hind  tibi;«  (Fernald). 

The  catei pillars  are  called  leaf  rollers  from  their  common  habit  of 
folding  or  rolling  over  a  portion  and  lining  the  interior  with  silk; 


152 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


others  feed  on  buds,  or  live  in  seeds  and  fruits,  or  bore  in  the  stems 
of  plants. 
The  spruce-bud  Tortrix  {T.  fumiferana  Clemens),  usually  rare,  at 


Fig.   183. — Grain  Tinea,  with  larva  and  pupa. 
Natural  size  and  enlarged. 


Fig.  184— a.  head 
and  palpi;  b,  foie 
wing;  c,  hiiul  wing, 
of  CEnectra  xan- 
thoides. 


Fig. 


times  has  defoliated  spruce  and  firs  over  extensive  tracts  on  the  coast  of 

Maine;  the  moth  lays  about  thirty  eggs 
which  are  flat,  scale  like,  slightly 
convex  above,  with  a  thin  shell;  the 
worm  feeds  on  the  buds  and  terminal 
shoots  in  June.  Our  most  common 
leaf-roller  is  Caccecia  romceana  Harris, 
whose  green  larvae,  with  a  black  head 
and  prothoracic  shield,  fold  the  leaves  of 
the  apple,  plum,  cherry,  rose,  and  other 
jilants.  The  cranberry  worm  (Rhopo- 
185— c  moth  of  cranberr3--  bota  vacciniana  Pack.)  often  injures 
worm(o); /;,  pupa.  the  cranberry  plants.     The  strawberry 

leaf-roller,  Phoxopteris  fragarim  (Walsh  and  RilejO.  folds  the  leaves. 
Family  Pyralidae. — The  moths  of  this  group  have  slender  bodies 
and  legs,  the  fore  wings  are  usually  narrow,  the  hinder  pair  broad 
and  somewhat  poinied  at  the  apex;  the  palpi  are  often  held  straight 
out,  and  are  usually  long  and  slender.  The  larvae  are  easily  con- 
founded with  the  leaf-rollers,  but  are  usually  more  or  less  striped, 
those  of  the  Phycids  being  often  brownish.  There  are  three  sub- 
families, viz.,  the  Orambina',  Phydnm,  and  Pyralinw. 

The  species  of  Crambus  are  often  very  destructive  to  grass.  The 
larva  of  G.  vulgivagellus  Clemens  (Fig.  186),  which  ravaged  the  pas- 
tures and  meadows  of  New  York  in  1881,  is  pale  purple  green,  with 
a  black  head;  it  forms  a  silken  tube  near  the  roots  of  gra.ss,  and 
pupates  in  thin,  slight  cocoons  just  under  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
To  this  group  belongs  the  bee-moth  {Oalleria  melonella).  Among 
Phycinse,  the  currant  and  gooseberry  fruit-worm  {Dakruma  con- 
volutella  Hiibner)  is  noteworthy.  Of  the  Pyralinae,  Asopia  furinalis 
Harris  in  the  larval  stage  feeds  on  meal,  etc.;  other  typical  forms 
are  the  species  of  Botys,  while  aquatic  larvas,  living  in  cases,  are 
species  of  Hydrocampa,  Cataclysta,  and  Paraponyx. 


ORDER  LEPtDOPTERA. 


153 


Fig.  186.— Vagabond  Crambus.    a,  larva;  6,  tube;  c,  cocoon  in  the  ground;  d,f, 
moth;  e,  wing  of  a  lighter  specimen— all  natural  size;  g,  egg,  enlarged. 

Family  "SY^dlddniiiTe  {Geometrid(P).—ThQ  geometrids,  measuring- or 
spau-worms,  are  at  once  known 
by  their  looping  gait,  due  to  the 
absence  of  the  two  front  pairs 
of  abdominal  legs,  so  that  in 
walking  the  body  is  arched  up- 
wards; when  motionless  they 
resemble  twigs  and  stems  of 
the  trees  they  inhabit.  The 
moths  have  slender  bodies  and 
very  broad  wings,  with  usually 
pectinated  antennte;  the  palpi 
are  short  and  slender,  and  the 
tongue  short  and  weak.  When 
about  to  pupate,  the  caterpil- 
lars often  spin  an  open  loose 
cocoon,  but  where  the  insect 
hybernates  in  the  pupa  state,  as  the  canker-worm.  It  buries  it- 
self in  the  ground;  a  few  hang  naked  and  suspended  by  the  tail. 


Fig.  \9>~ .—Eudalimia  subsignaria. 


FiQ.  188. — Spring  canker-worm,      a,   male   moth;  b,  wingless  female,   natural 
size;  6,  egg;  a,  larva;  c,  side,  cl.  top,  of  a  segment. — Aftei- Riley. 

The  pupi3e  are  rather  smooth  and  slender,  either  pale  brown  and 


lf)4 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


'**»^:'' )  ?  i  "«»*^r 


spotted,    or  mahogany  brown.      The  more  destructive  forms  are 

the  spring  oaulver-worm,  Anisopteryx  mrnata,  in  which  the  females 

are  wingless,  and  lay  their  eggs  in  patches  on  the  bark,  the  worms 

appearing  when   the   trees   leaf   out.     In    cities  the  caterpillars  of 

EudaUmia  subnignaria  Hlibner  defoliates  elms  and  other  shade-trees. 
Family  Noctuidae. — The  owlet  moths  number  upwards  of    1500 

species  in  this  country,  many  of  which 

are  destructive  to  crops.     The  noctuids 

in  general  differ  from  other  moths  in 

their    thick    bodies,    the   thorax  often 

being  crested,  by  their  stout  palpi,  and 

the    usually    simple    antennae,    though 

these    are    in   some    cases    pectinated. 

The  fore  wings  are  rather  narrow,  with 

usually  a  dot  and  reniform  spot  in  the 

middle   of    the  wing,  while  the  hind 

wings  are  large.     They  mostly  fly  by 

night.      The    caterpillars    are    usually 

smooth,   without  hairs  or  spines,   the 

body  tapering  towards  each  end,  and 

more  or  less  striped;  the  number  of  feet 

is    usually  sixteen,  except    the    lower 

genera  with  broad  wings,  such  as  Cato- 

cala,  which  are  semiloopers,  having  but 

fourteen  feet.     The  pupa?  are  usually  subterranean. 

The  lower  forms,  called  Deltoids,  have  very  long  palps,  and  the 

larvae  are  slender,  glassj^  green,  and  fall  wriggling  to  the  ground 

when  disturbed.     Such  is  Hypenn  humuli  Harris.     The  species  of 

Catocala  have  very  broad  fore  wings  and  often  bright  red  hind  wings, 

the  caterpillars  living  on  trees.  The  great  Erebus  odora  Drury, 
which  expands  live  inches,  and  the  great 
Thymniu  agrippina  (Cramer)  of  Brazil  are  the 
giants  of  the  family.  Among  the  most  de- 
structive pests  are  the  cotton-worm  (Aletia 
(irgillacea  Hlibner),  the  boll-worm  {Helioilm 
armigera  Linn.),  and  the  northern  army-worm 


Fig.  189.— Hop-snout  moth,  Hy- 
pena  humuli.    Natural  size. 


Fig.  190.— Army-worm  and  moth,    a,  male  moth;  b,  abdomen  of  female— nat. 
size;  c,  eye;  d,  base  of  male  antenna;  e,  base  of  female  antenna,  enlarged. 

(Leucania  unipvncta  Hixw . ,  Fig.  190).  Universal  pests  are  the  cut- 
worms, which  like  most  of  the  othei  larva;  of  the  group  feed  by  night, 
hiding  by  day.    Their  eggs  are  laid  on  the  leaves  of  grass,  and  the 


ORDER  LEPIDOPTERA 


155 


caterpillars  gnaw  off  the  stems  of  succulent  plants.  The  larvpe  cf 
the  species  of  Apatela  are  hairy,  and  so  closely  resemble  certain 
Notodontian  caterpillars  as  to  be  easily  mistaken  for  them. 

Fau.ily  Eombycidse. — The  species  of  this  family  differ  in  the  usually 
thick,  hairy  body,  small  head,  pectinated  antennae,  and  long,  large 
clypeus;  in  the  weak  palpi  and  often  small,  weak  tongue;  while  the 
caterpillars  are  usually  hairy,  and  more  or  less  tufted,  or  spiny. 
They  spin  a  cocoon,  more  or  less  dense,  and  the  chrysalids  are  un- 
usually short  and  thick.  The  group  is  divided  into  a  number  of 
sub-families,  regarded  by  some  authors  as  families. 

The  Lnchneides  (Lasiocampinie)  embrace  the  genera  Clisiocampa, 
Gastro pacha,  etc.  The  larva  of  Clisiocampa  americana  Harris  is 
called  the  American  tent-caterpillar;  its  webs  are  seen  in  apple  and 
cherry  trees. 

The  Ceratocainpino'  are  represented  by  Anisota  senatoria  (Abbot- 
Smith),  whose  spiny  black-aud-red-striped  larvaa  strip  oaks;  also  by 
two  very  large  moths,  Citheronia  regalis  (Fabr.)  and  Eacles  imperialis 
(Drury);  the  Hemileucini  by  Hemileuca  maia  and  HypercMria  io  Fabr.; 
while  the  giants  of  the  family  belong  to  the  Atiaci,  which  embrace  the 
American  silk-worm,  the  caterpillar  of  Teleapolyp7iemus{CTaimer);  Ac» 


Fig.  191.— The  Chinese  silk-worm,    b,  cocoon;  a,  moth.    Natural  size. 


tiasluna (Linn.),  Platysamia  cecropia  Linn.,  and  Callosamia  promstJiea 
(Drury).  The  Bombycimc  are  represented  by  the  Chinese  silk-worm, 
Bombyx  morilAnn  ,  and  this  group  is  succeeded  by  Platypterices,  of 
which  Platypteryx  arcuata  Walk,  is  a  type.  This  group  is  succeeded 
by  theNotodontians  (Ptilodontes),  of  which  Schizura  unicornis  (Abbot 


lo6 


ENTOMOLOGT. 


and  Smith)  and  Notodonta  stragula  Grote,  as  well  as  Nerice  bidentata 
Walk.  (Fig.  193),  and  Edema  albifrom  Abbot-Smith,  are  examples. 


N^.." 


YiQ.  1%^.— Nerice  bidentata.    Nat.  size.      YioA^'i.— Edema  albifrons.    Nat.  size. 


These  are  succeeded  by  the  Cochlidui',  of  which  Limacodes  scapha 
Harris  is  the  most  familiar  form.     This  group  is  followed  by  the 


Fig.  \M.—Limacodes  scapha,  moth  and  larva. 
Natural  size. 


Fig.  195. — Basket- worm,  Platce- 
ceticus  glover ii  Pack.  Nat.  size. 


Psychirm,  represented  by  the  basket-worms,  Thyridopteryx  ephemerce- 
formis  Steph.,  Psyche  confederata  Grote,  and  Platoeceticus  glover ii. 


Fig.  196.  —  Hyphantria  cunea.  o,  dail?  larva,  seen  from  side;  b,  light  larva 
from  above;  c,  dark  larva  from  above;  d,  pupa  from  below;  e,  pupa  from 
side;/,  moth. 

The  DasycMrm  (Liparinse)  are  represented  by  Orgyia  leucostigma 
(Abbot  Smith)  or  tussock-caterpillar,  so  destructive  to  shade-trees. 
The  Arctiima  are  a  large  group,  the  species  of  Arctia  being  nu- 


ORDER  LEPIDOPTERA. 


157 


merous,  the  more  common  ami  destructive  species  being  Spilosoma 
virginica  (Fabr.)  and  the  fall  web-worm,  Hyphantria  cunea  (Drury, 
Fig.  196).     The  last  sub-family  is  the  Liiliosm,  in  which  the  body  is 


Fig.  197. — Lithosia  bicolor.    Nat.  size. 


—  Utetlieisa  hella.   Nat.  size. 


slight,  not  very  hairy,  and  the  antennae  not  pectinated.  Litliosia  bi- 
color Grote  (Fig.  197)  and  Utetheisa  bella  (Linn.,  Fig.  198)  are  typical 
forms. 

Family  Zygaenidae.— The  beautiful  moths  of  this  group  are  recog- 
nized by  the  pectinated  antennae,  their  usually  rather  narrow  wings, 
rounded  at  the  apex,  the  Arctian-like  venation,  and  by  their  hairy 
caterpillars,  which  transform  in  cocoons  of  silk  or  mostly  hair.  It 
is  divided  into  the  Zygrminii',  represented  b}'  Zygsena  in  Europe,  and 
in  this  country  by  the  species  of  Procris,  Harrisina,  etc.,  as  well  as 
LycoTTurrpha  pholus  Drury;  and  the  Olaucopiiuc,  exemplified  by 
Ctenucha  mrginica  Char  p. 

Family  Agaristidae. — Formerly  associated  with  the  preceding 
family,  the  species  of  this  group 
differ  in  having  simple  antennae, 
a  sub-costal  cell,  and  the  cater- 
pillars are  naked,  more  or  less 
himiped  on  the  eighth  abdominal 
segment,  and  do  not  spin  a  silk 
cocoon.  The  types  are  Eudryas 
grata  Fabr.,  E.  unio  Hiibn., 
and  Alypia  8-rnaculata  (Fabr.). 

Family  Castniadae.  —  The 
species  are  tropical,  mostly  very 
large  moths  with  simple  an- 
tennae thickened  towards  the 
end,  and  the  head  narrow  be- 
tween the  eyes  (the  scales  are  in 
C'astnia  larger  than  in  any  other 
Lepidoptera) ;  the  larvae  are  Fig-  199.  -^/.vpm  of  Rrape.  o,  larva; ', 
naked,  boring  in  the  stems  of  side  of  asegment,enlarged.-AfterRilej. 
orchids,  etc.  As  in  the  two  foregoing  families  the  moths  are  daj' 
flies.  Castnin  Ikus  (Fabr.),  South  America:  Synemon  sophia 
(White),  Australia.  A  species  of  the  Australian  genus  Hecatesia,  the 
males  of  which  have  a  vitreous  spot  on  the  fore  wings,  makes  a 
whizzing  noise  like  the  hu^riming  of  a  top. 

Family  Hepialidae. — The.se  are  brown  moths  with  silver  markings, 
whose  antennae  are  short,  and  either  simple  or  sub-serrate ;  the 
tongue  is  wanting,  the  clypeus  short,  and  the  larvae  are  borers. 
Hepialus  mustelinus  Pack,  occurs  in  the  Northeastern  States. 

Family  Cossidee, — Large  moths  with  the  antennae  well  pectinated; 


158  ENTOMOLOGY. 

a  sub-costal  cell,  and  a  strong  vein  dividing  the  discal  cell  longi- 
tudinally into  two  cells;  larvae  boring  in  solid  wood,  Prionoxystus 
robinve  Peck,  is  the  oak  and  locust  tree-borer. 

Family  Thyrididae. — Small,  richly  colored  moths  with  simple  an- 
tennae, the  wings  small,  the  hinder  ones  more  or  less  angular;  the 
discal  cell  of  the  fore  wings  open.  Thyris  maculata  Harris,  T. 
luguhris  Boisd. 

Family  Sesiidae. — Small  moths  with  brilliant  colors,  long,  narrow, 
more  or  less  transparent  fore  and  hind  wings,  and  thickened  an- 
tennae; larvae  boring  in  the  stems  of  shrubs  and  trunks  of  trees. 
Sesia  pyri  (Rams);  Melittia  ceto  Westw.,  the  squash-vine  borer. 

Family  Sphingidae. — The  hawk-moths  are  large  insects  with  thick 
bodies,  spindle-shaped  antennae,  thick  palpi;  usually  a  very  long 
tongue;  the  fore  wings  are  rather  narrow,  the  apex  sharp,  and  they 
have  a  small,  short  discal  cell.  C^aterpillars  with  a  smooth  or  granu- 
lated skin,  and  a  hump  or  horn  on  the  eighth  aV)dominal  segment; 
usually  pupating  in  the  earth,  the  pupa  often  with  the  tongne-case 
large  and  free.  In  Ilemaris  the  bodj^  is  bright-colored,  and  the  wings 
transparent  in  the  middle  (/£  thySe  Fabr.).  The  larva  of  Thyreus 
abbotii  has  a  disk-like  hump  instead  of  a  horn.  In  Smerinthus  the 
tongue  is  short  and  weak;  S.  exc<(c<itus  Ab.  and  Sm.  In  Chtero- 
campa  and  its  allies  (Chdrocamjyince)  the  thorax  is  not  tufted,  and  the 
outer  edge  of  the  wings  is  more  or  less  hollowed  out;  in  the 
SpMngiwe  the  thorax  is  tufted;  the  tongue  long  and  the  outer  edge 
of  the  wings  convex;  Sphinx  eeleus  Hiibner  is  the  potato  or  tomato 
worm,  and  8.  Carolina  Linn.,  the  tobacco  worm  of  the  Southern 
States.    The  larvae  of  Elleuia  liave  no  hoin;  E UemaJiaiTisii Clemens. 

The  butterflies  appear  to  form  a  super-family,  the  Rliopa- 
locera,  and  are  divided  into  four  families.  They  differ 
from  moths  in  their  club-shaped  antennas;  in  the  wings 
being  elevated  when  at  rest,  and  their  peculiar  venation; 
the  lack  of  a  bristle  connecting  the  two  wings;  and  from 
their  day-flying  habits  are  called  diurnal  Lepidoptera.  The 
larvae  vary  greatly  in  form  and  ornamentation,  but  with 
rare  exceptions  (a  very  few  Hesperians)  they  are  not  borers, 
and  none  of  them  spin  a  perfect  cocoon,  the  chrysalis 
either  being  fixed  by  the  tail  head-upwards  and  held  in 
place  by  a  silken  thread  passing  around  the  body,  or  it 
hangs  suspended  by  the  tail;  others  (Lyca?nidfe)  generally 
fasten  themselves  longitudinally  upon  the  leaf  or  stem  of  a 
plant,  while  the  Hesperid^e  lie  inside  of  a  rolled  leaf,  with 
silken  threads  around  the  body.* 


*  The  definitions  of  the  live  families  of  butterflies  are  in  part 
copied  from  H.  W.  Bates's  "Lepidoptera  of  the  Amazon  Valley" 
(Trans.  Linn.  Soc,  London,  1862). 


160 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Fig. 


Family  Hesperidae. — Head  very  wide  between  the  eyes;  antennse 
ending  in  a  hook;  hind  tibiae  usually  with  two  pairs  of  spurs.  Larva 
naked,  with  a  large  head,  rarely  boring  in  plants, 
usually  living  in  a  rolled-up  leaf;  pupa  secured  by 
many  threads,  or  enclosed  in  a  slight,  imperfect 
cocoon.  The  Hesperids  connect  the  true  buttertiies 
with  the  moths,  Megathymus  yucav  Boisd.  and 
LeConte  boring  in  the  roots  of  Yucca,  and  bearing 
a  superficial  resemblance  to  the  Castniida',  being 
more  moth-like  than  any  other  butterfly,  while  the 
species  of  Synemon,  with  their  bright  colors  and 
club-shaped  antennae,  simulate  the  Hesperids.  Examples  of  the 
family  are  Hesperia  tessellata  Scudd.,  Nwoniddes  brizo  Bois.  and  Lee, 
Eudamus  buthyllus  (Abbot  and  Smith),  and  2'hymele  proteus  (Linn.). 

Family  Fapilionidse. — Wing-cells  (at  least,  of  the  hind  wings) 
closed;  hind  tibite  with  one  pair  of  spurs;  a  leaf-like  appendage  to 
the  fore  tibiae,  as  in  mofhs  and  Hesperids.  Larva  with  a  retractile 
scent-organ  on  the  segment  next  to  the  head.  Pupa  fastened  in  an 
upright  position  by  the  tail  and  a  girdle  across  the  middle.  Pieris 
rapce  Linn.,  the  imported  cabbage  butterfly,  and  P.  oleracea  Harris, 
as  well  as  Colias  philodice  Godart,  represer.t  the  sub  family  Pierince, 
while  Parnassius  and  Papilio  turnus  Linn,  represent  the  sub-family 
Papilionina'. 

Family  Lycaenidae. — Six  perfect  legs  in  the  females,  four  in  the 
males.  This  group  is  subdivided  into  two  sub-families,  the  first  of 
which  is  the  Lycaniiw,  in  which  the  fore  tar.si  lack  the  tarsal  claws, 
but  are  densely  .spined  beneath.  Wing-cells  (except  in  Eumaeus) 
not  closed  by  perfect  veins.  Larva  oval  and  flattened,  head  small, 
and  the  feet  very  small.  Pupa  short,  obtuse  at  each  end,  smooth, 
fastened  by  the  tail  and  a  girdle.  Lyaina  pseudargiol'is  Boisduval 
and  LeConte;  ChrysopJmnus  thoe  Bois.  and  Lee.     In  the  subfamily 


Fig.  W2.—MeKt<Ba phaeton  (under  surface  ou  right  side);  a,  pupa,  enlaigea 
Erydnino',  the  legs  are  as  in  Lycaeninae,  the  fore  tarsi  consisting  of 
only  one  or  two  joints,  and  being  spineless.  Larva  either  not  spined, 
or  with  bristles  and  hairs;  pupa  either  with  a  girdle  (Eryciua),  or 
fastened  rigidly  by  the  tail  without  a  girdle  (Stalachtis),  or,  as  in 
Libythtea,  suspended  freely  by  the  tail. 

Family  Nymphalidae.— Fore  legs  imperfect  in  both  sexes;  in  the 
female  wanting  the  tarsal  claws;  in  the  male  the  fore  tarsi  are 
aborted,  consisting  of  one  or  two  joints.     Discal  cell  usually  open. 


ORDER  HTMENOPTERA. 


161 


Larva  long,  cylindrical,  with  spines  or  fleshy  processes.  Pupa  sus- 
pended freely  by  the  tail,  stout,  either  smooth  and  rounded,  or 
angular  in  outline.  This  is  by  far  the  largest  group  of  butterflies. 
Ageronia feronia  Linn.,  a  Brazilian  butterfly,  also  an  inhabitant  of 
Mexico,  according  to  Darwin  makes  a  clicking  sound  while  on  the 
wing.  Dione  vanill(P  (Linn.)  inhabits  Florida,  the  Gulf  States,  and 
extends  across  the  continent  to  southern  California.  The  species  of 
Argynnis  (ex.  A.  aphrodite  Fabr.)  are  notable  for  the  silvery  spots 


Fig.  203.~Polygonia  progne.     Natural  size. 
Under  surface  on  right  side. 


Fia.  Mi.—  iEneis  semidea. 
Natural  size. 


on  the  under  side  of  the  hind  wings.  Allied  to  them  are  the  species 
of  Melitaea  (M.  phaeton  Drury).  In  Vanes.sa  {V.  antiopa  Linn.)  and 
Polygonia  {P.  progne  Cramer)  the  outer  edges  of  the  wings  are 
notched.  The  highest  of  the  butterflies  appear  to  be  the  species 
of  Heliconia,  of  Cercyonis  (C  aJope  Fabr.),  and  the  interesting  arctic 
and  alpine  genus  CEneis  (0.  semidea  Say). 

Order  XVI.  Hymenoptera*  {Saiv-flies,  Gallflies,  Ichneu- 
mons, Ants,  Wasjjs,  and  Bees). 

In  order  to  perceive  the  distinctive  features  of  this  exten- 

*  Selected  Works. 

Aaron,  S.  F.  The  North  American  Chrysididae  (Trans.  Amer.  Ent. 
Soc,  1885). 

Blake,  C.  A.  Monograph  of  the  Mutillidae  of  North  America  (Trans 
Amer.  Ent.  Soc,  xiii.,  1886). 

Cheshire,  F.  R.  Bees  and  bee-keeping.  I.  Scientific  (Anatomy  of 
;he  honey-bee).     (London,  1886. ) 

Cresson,  E.  T.  Synopsis  of  the  Hymenoptera  of  America,  north  oi 
Mexico  (Philadelphia,  1887).  Also  papers  on  Ichneumonida?,  bees, 
etc.,  in  Proc.  Phil.  Acad.  Sc,  and  Trans.  Amer.  Ent.  Soc,  Cana- 
dian Entomologist,  Proc.  Bos.  Soc  1863. 

Forel,  A.    Les  Fourmis  de  la  Suisse  (Geneva,  1874). 

Howard,  L.  0.  (Articles  on  Chalcids  in  reports  and  Bull,  of  U.  S. 
Entomologist,  1879-1888.) 

A  generic  synopsis  of  the  hymenopterous  family  Proctotrupidae 

(Trans.  Amer.  Ent.  Soc,  xiii.,  1886). 

Lepelletier,  St.  Fargeau  et  Brulle.  Histoire  naturelles  des  insectes 
hymenopteres  (Suites  a  Biiffon,  i.-iv.     Paris,  1836-45). 

Lubbock,  J.     Ants,  Bees,  and  Wasps  (New  York,  1883). 
{Continued  on  next  page.) 


162 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


sive  order  one  should  examine  a  honey-bee.  Those  that 
we  see  in  our  gardens  are  the  workers;  the  males,  or  drones, 
and  the  females,  or  queens,  are  rarely  seen  out  of  the  hive. 
In  the  first  place,  see  how  well-proportioned  are  the  three 
regions  of  the  body;  the  head  is  large  in  proportion  to  the 
A  B  thorax,    which     is    nearly 

spherical;  and  the  hind 
body,  which  has  six  visible 
segments,  is  short,  conical, 
and  attached  by  a  slender 
Avaist  to  the  chest.  The 
three  regions  are  more 
equally  developed  than  in 
any  other  order  of  insects. 
Moreover,  Hymenoptera 
differ  from  all  other  insects 
in  the  thorax  (in  all  except 
the  Tenthredinidee),  con- 
sisting of  four  segments,  the 
first  abdominal  during  pupation  being  transferred  to  the 
thorax. 


Fio.  205.— Head  of  a  worker  hive-bee.  A, 
front,  and  B,  side  view;  oc,  simple,  e, 
compound,  eyes;  epic,  epicranium;  cl, 
clypeus :  Ibr,  labium;  md,  mandible; 
mx,  maxilla;  I.  lingrua  or  tongue;  Ip, 
labial  palpi.    Magnified. 


McCook,  H    C.     The  natural  history  of  the  agricultural  ant  of  Texas 

(Phihid.,  1879). 
The  honey-ants  of  the  Garden  of  the  Gods,  and  the  Occident  ants  of 

the  American  plains  (Philad.,  1882).      Also  papers  on  other  ants 

(Trans.  Amer.  Ent.  Soc,  1876,  and  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sc,  Phila., 

1877-84). 
Mayr,    G.      Formicina    Austriaca ;    Die    Formiciden    der    Verein. 

Staaten  in  Nordamerika,  1886;  and  others  papers  in  Verb,  ZooL 

Bot.  Ges  ,  Wien,  1855-86. 
Moggridge,  J.  T.     Harvesting  ants  and  trap-door  spiders  (London, 

1878-74). 
Packard,  A.  S.     Revision  of  the  fossorial  Hymenoptera  of  N.  A.  (Proc. 

Ent.  Soc,  Phila.,  186.5-7). 
Humble-bees  of  New  England  and  their  parasites  (Proc.  Essex 

Inst.,  iv.,  1864). 
Saussure,  H  de.      Studies  of  the  family  Vespidse  (3  vols.,  8vo,  75 

pis.     Geneva,  1852-58). 
Synopsis  of  American  solitary  Wasps  (Smithsonian  Misc.  Coll.. 

"Washington,  1875). 
Smith,  F.     C'atalogue  of  Hymenoptera  in  British  Museum  (7  parts. 

London,  1853-59).     (See  also  other  papers  in  Trans.  Ent.  Soc, 

London,  1853-59.) 

Also  the  papers  of  Ashmead,  Bassett  (on  Cynipidae"),  Norton  (on 
saw-flies),  Patton,  Riley,  Say,  and  Walsh  (on  Cynipidae,  etc.). 


ORDER  EYMENOPTERA.  163 

Looking  at  the  head,  which  is  carried  vertically,  the 
compound  eyes  are  seen  to  be  very  large,  while  the  three 
simple  eyes  (ocelli)  are  arranged  in  a  triangle  on  the  top  of 
the  head.  The  antennae  are  slender,  and  elbowed  or  bent 
at  the  end  of  the  long  second  joint.  The  large  clypeus 
is  succeeded  in  front  by  the  short,  movable  upper  lip 
(labrum). 

The  mouth-parts  are  rather  complicated,  and  it  is  their 
complexity  or  high  degree  of  specialization  which  for  the 
most  part  gives  the  bee  and  others  of  its  order  their  supe- 
rior position  over  other  insects. 

The  jaws  are  rather  large,  and  cross  each  other  in  front, 
and  are  much  as  in  beetles  and  grasshoppers,  being  adapted 
for  biting.  On  the  other  hand,  the  accessory  jaws,  or  max- 
illae, are  different  from  those  of  any  other  insects.  They 
are  long  and  slender,  and,  with  the  under  lip,  bent  under 
the  head.  They  consist  of  three  joints,  the  last  forming  a 
long  flat  blade.  From  the  second  joint  arises  a  minute 
two- jointed  feeler  (palpus). 

The  under  lip  is,  however,  the  most  peculiarly  modified. 
It  consists  of  three  parts;  the  two  outer  forming  the  feelers, 
and  ending  in  three  small  joints,  while  the  middle  division 
is  the  so-called  tongue  (Fig.  205,  /).  It  is  a  thin-skinned, 
long,  grooved,  very  hairy  rod,  ending  in  a  spoon-shaped 
button;  extending  this  into  flowers,  the  bee  gathers  the 
nectar.  The  mouth-parts  are  thus  a  set  of  complicated 
tools, — the  jaws  for  biting  and  for  use  as  trowels  in  making 
its  waxen  cells,  the  sharp  lancet-like  maxillae  for  piercing 
flowers,  and  the  tongue  a  sort  of  writhing,  hairy  rod,  for 
gathering  the  sweet  liquid  secreted  at  the  bottom  of  flowers. 

The  wings  are  seen  to  be  clear  and  perfectly  transparent, 
with  no  scales.  They  are  formed  of  a  clear  membrane, 
hence  the  name  of  the  order  to  which  the  bee  belongs,  i.e., 
Hymenoptera,  or  membrane-winged.  The  veins  are  few, 
irregular,  inclosing  a  few  cells.  The  hinder  pair  of  wings 
is  less  than  half  as  large  as  the  front  pair. 

The  legs  are  not  very  long,  but  very  hairy,  and  the 
hinder  ones  have  flattened  shanks,  while  the  first  toe-joint 


164 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


is  very  broad  and  flat,  with  the  inner  surface  covered  with 
dense  stiff  hairs,  upon  which  the  pollen  of  flowers  is  stuck, 
or  piled  up,  so  as  to  form  a  yellow  heap  which  is  borne  to 
the  hive. 

The  sting  is  formed  of  three  parts,  i.e.,  a  sheath  or 
^'awl"  and  two  barbed  darts.  Each  dart  is  grooved,  and 
slides  up  and  down  on  a  corresponding  projection  or 
'''guide-rail"  of  the  awl. 

In  their  mouth-parts  Hymenoptera  are  wonderfully 
specialized;  they  can  bite,  pierce,  cut,  suck,  or  lap.  They 
are  swift  on  the  wing;    their  habits   are   related   to  their 


Fig.  206.— Digestive  canal  of  the  honey-bee.  a,  salivary  glands;  b,  oesophagus; 
c,  stomach;  d,  the  numerous  urinary  tubes  opening  into  the  intestine,  e;  /, 
rectum;  g,  rectal  glands.— After  Dufour. 

great  range  of  station.  Their  metamorphosis  is  the  most 
complete  of  all  insects,  the  young  wasps  and  bees  being 
footless  and  fed  by  the  parents.  From  these  and  other 
causes  the  order  has  flourished  to  a  wonderful  degree. 

In  this  order,  says  Darwin,  "  slight  differences  in  color, 
according  to  sex,  are  common,  but  conspicuous  differences 
are  rare  except  in  the  family  of  bees. "  In  the  Ichneumonidse 
the  males  are  almost  always  lighter  colored  than  the  females; 
while  in  the  Tenthredinidae  the  males  are  generally  darker 
than  the  females.  In  Treinex  colmnba  the  female  is  much 
brighter  colored  than  the  male.  In  the  ants  the  males  of 
several  species  are  black,  the  females  being  testaceous.  The 
sexes  of  bees  often  differ  in  color,  the  males  generally  being 


OBBER  HYMENOPTERA. 


166 


the  brightest,  and  iu  Bombus  and  Apathus  they  are  much 

more  variable  iu  color  than  the  females;  in  several  species 

of  Xylocopa,  while  the  females  are   black,  the  males  are 

bright  yellow.     (Descent  of  Man,  i.  354.) 

The  group  Terebrantia  includes  those  families  in  which 

the  ovipositor  is  normal,  being  adapted  for  boring,  or  so 

modified  as  to  form  a  saw-like  apparatus;  while  the  Aculeata, 

including  the  ants,  Avasps,  and  bees,  have  a  true  sting.* 

Family  Tenthredinidae.— Abdomen  sessile,   not   narrowed  at  the 
base;  ovipositTJT  saw-like;  anterior  tibice  with  two  apical  spurs;  the 


Fig.  207.— The  larch  saw-fly,  natural  size  and  enlarged,  with  the  larch  worm  of 
different  ages,  natural  size.— Miss  L.  Sullivan  del. 

head  is  short  and  transversely  oblong,  with   short,  not  elbowed, 
usually  simple,  sometimes  clavate  or  pectinate  antennae.     The  larvae 

*  In  preparing  the  .synopses  of  the  characters  of  the  families,  the 
author  has  often  copied  nearly  verbatim  from  Cresson's  "  S3niopsis  of 
the  Hymenoptera  of  America,  north  of  Mexico"  (Phila.,  1887).  It 
is  not  improbable  that  some  of  the  "  families"  are  merely  sub-fami- 
lies, as  for  example  in  the  ants  and  wasps. 


166 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


closely  resemble  caterpillars,  liaviug  from  six  to  eight  pairs  of 
abdomiual  legs  (iu  Lyda  there  are  no  abdomi- 
ual  legs,  but  a  pair  of  singular,  jointed  terminal 
appendages);  they  are  usually  of  some  shade  of 
green,  and  usually  moult  four  times.  Most  of 
the  larvae  secrete  silk  and  spin  a  dense,  tough 
cocoon  within  which  the  half-formed  pupa  re- 
sides through  the  winter,  finishing  its  change 
into  the  pupa  state  in  the  spring.  With  its  saw- 
like ovipositor  the  saw-fly  punctures  twigs  and 
leaves;  as  in  the  case  of  the  larch  saw-fly  (Nema- 
tus  ericlisonii  Hartig),  the  two  sets  of  serrated 
blades  of  the  ovipositor  are  thrust  obliquely  into 
the  shoot  by  a  sawing  movement;  the  lower  set 
of  blades  is  most  active,  sliding  in  and  out 
alternately,  the  general  motion  of  each  set  of 
blades  being  like  that  of  a  back-saw.  The 
species  of  Lophyrus  have  pectinated  antennae, 
and  are  destructive  to  coniferous  trees. 

The  pear  slug- worm  {Selandria  cerasi  Peck) 
and  the  currant  saw-fly  {Nematus  mntricosus 
Klug)  deposit  their  eggs  iu  rows  on  the  under 
side  of  the  leaves,  and  there  are  successive  broods 
of  worms  throughout  the  summer,  the  females  of 
this  species  being  agamous.  The  largest  of  our 
saw-flies  is  Cimbex  americana  Leach,  whose  an- 
tennae are  knobbed  at  the  end;  while  its  larva 
as  it  lies  coiled  up  on  a  leaf  resembles  a  helix 
shell. 

Family  Uroceridae. — The  species  differ  from  those  of  the  preceding 
family  in  the  long,  large,  exserted  borer,  adapted  for 
boring  into  solid  wood,  and  in  the  fore  tibiae  having  but 
one  apical  spur.  The  larvae  are  called  horn-tails,  and 
bore  in  pine  or  hard-wood  trees;  they  are  without  ab- 
dominal feet,  and  when  about  to  transform  spin  thin 
silken  cocoons.  The  species  of  Cephus  bore  in  the 
stems  of  wheat,  etc.,  while  Tremex  columba  Linn,  infests 
elm,  maple,  and  other  shade  trees,  making  large,  smooth 
round  holes  in  the  tree. 

Family  Cynipidae. — The  gall-flies  are  all  of  small  size, 
the  head  generally  small  and  transverse,  with  slender, 
straight,  13-16- jointed  antennae;  the  thorax  is  usually 
thick,  oval,  with  a  large  scutellum,  and  the  wings  (some- 
times wanting)  are  without  a  complete  costal  vein  and 
stigma,  and  there  are  few  veins;  the  abdomen  is  short, 
generally  oval,  more  or  less  compressed,  rarely  knife- 
shaped;  the  second  or  third  segment  is  the  largest, 
while  the  ovipositor  is  spiral  and  concealed  within  two 
sheaths.  The  larva  is  a  short,  thick,  fleshy,  footless  ^^^-  209.  — 
grub;  and  those  of  many  species  transform  within  their  j  ^rv&\i 
galls,  or  enter  the  earth  to  pupate.  Tremex  co- 

The  egg  is  deposited  in  leaves  or  branches,  especially     inmba. 
of  the  oak,  rose,  vaccinium.  etc.    Its  presence,  with  pos-         ''■  ®'^®' 


Fig.  208.— Pear  slug- 
worm  (a  enlarged), 
and  its  saw-fly. 


ORDER  HTMENOPTERA. 


167 


sibly  ca  slight  amount  of  poison  conveyed  by  the  ovipositor,  causes 
an  abnormal  growth  of  the  plant-cells,  until  a  tumor  or  gall  is  formed 
within  which  the  larva  hatches  and  lives.  Each  species  of  fly 
produces  a  peculiar  gall,  which  is  charac- 
teristic of  that  species.  Great  numbers  of 
female  gall-flies  are  agamous,  i.e.,  are  pro- 
duced from  unfertilized  eggs,  there  being 
no  males  in  existence.  Thus  Cynips  quer- 
ctcs-aciculata  O.  Sack.,  which  produces  a 
large  gall  in  the  autumn,  in  the  spring  of 
the  year  succeeding  lays  eggs  which  pro- 
duce  galls  disclosing  a  dimorphic  form,  ^"^-  210.— Gall-fly  of  oak. 
originally  thought  to  be  a  distinct  species,  and  named  G.  q.  spongi- 
fica  by  Osten  Sacken.  The  autumn  brood  of  this  Cynips  consists 
entirely  of  agamous  females,  while  the  spring  brood  consists  of  both 
males  and  females;  there  is  thus  an  alternation  of  generations,  and 
this  is  the  case  in  many  species.  In  some  cases  the  two  generations 
belong  to  what  were  originally  described  as  separate  genera.  Thus 
Adler  observed  that  the  European  Neuroterus  lenticularis  produces 
galls  of  a  certain  form  on  the  under  surface  of  oak-leaves,  the  galls 
falling  off  in  the  autumn,  and  the  fly  appearing  in  the  early  spring. 
It  then  deposits  its  eggs  on  the  buds  of  the  oak,  which  produce 
upon  the  leaves  and  stalks  of  the  male  flowers  galls  unlike  those  of 
the  preceding  autumn.  Moreover,  the  fly  which  emerges  from 
them  has  been  referred  to  a  separate  genus  as  Spathegaster  baccarum. 
This  in  turn  lays  eggs  which  produce  the  original  Neuroterus  form; 
and  the  Neuroterus  generation  consists  of  females  alone,  while  the 
Spathegasters  are  of  both  sexes. 
The  gali-flies  fall  into  two  sections,  the  first  containing  the  true 


Fig.  211. — Evania  laevigata,  male,  and  pupa. 


gall-flies  (Psenides)  and  the  guest  gall-flies  (Inquilines,  which  are 
commensals  or  boarders  living  at  the  expense  of  the  true  gall-flies), 
with  the  peculiar  genus  Ibalia,  while  the  second  includes  the  Figi- 
tides,  wliich  are  parasitic.  In  the  sub-family  FigitintB  the  abdomen 
is  elongate-ovate,  compressed,  with  the  apex  more  or  less  pointed. 


168 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Family  Evaniidae. — These  fire  insect-parasites,  and  are  characterized 
by  the  abdomen  being  attached  to  the  disk  or  near  the  base  of  the 
metathorax,  and  not  at  the  apex  as  is  the  case  in  the  other  families. 
The  abdomen  is  petiolate  and  more  or  less  compressed.  Evania 
Imvigata  Olivier  is  parasitic  in  the  eggs  of  the  cockroach  (Peri- 
plaueta).  F(enus  jaculatoi'  Linn,  in  Eui'ope  lays  its  eggs  in  the  larvte 
of  Crabronidse. 

Family  Trigonalidae. — Costal  and  sub-costal  veins  separate  and  dis- 
tinct, the  costal  cell  being  present.  Abdomen  sub-sessile,  short, 
ovate.     Trigonalys. 

Family  Ichneumonidse. — In  this  great  family  the  costal  and  sub- 
costal veins  are  confluent,  the  costal  cell  therefore  absent,  while  the 

first  sub-marginal  and  first  dis- 
coidal  cells  are  always  confiuent; 
the  head  is  generally  transversely 
oblong,  and  the  abdomen  is 
slender  ovate,  usually  pedicelled, 
and  the  ovipositor  varies  much  in 
length,  being  longest  in  Rhyssa. 

The  ichneumons  lay  their  eggs 
on  the  head  or  other  parts  of  the 
bodies  of  caterpillars,  spiders,  etc. 


Fig.  212.— Rhyssa.    Nat.  size.         Fig.  213.— Option  macrurum.    Nat.  size. 

On  hatching,  the  larva,  which  is  a  soft,  fleshy,  footless  grub,  bores 
into  the  body-cavity  of  its  host,  and  lying  there  absorbs  the  blood 
flowing  around  it,  and  thus  weakens  the  caterpillar,  so  that  it  dies, 
or  the  insect  does  not  live  beyond  the  pupa  state.  Typical  genera 
are  Ichneumon,  Ophion,  Cryptus,  Pimpla,  etc. 

Family  Stephanidae. — In  this  very  small  group  the  head  is  globose, 
the  vertex  tuberculate  and  rugose;  the  costal  and  sub-costal  veins 
separate  and  distinct,  the  costal  cell  being  present.  StepJianus 
ciThctipes. 


ORDER  HTMENOPTERA. 


169 


Famil}^  Braconidae— The  species  of  this  numerous  group  difEer  from 
the  Ichueumonidte  in  slight  re- 
spects, i.e.,  in  "  the  absence  of  the 
second  recurrent  vein  of  the  fore 
wings,  and  by  having  the  first  sub- 
marginal  cell  generally,  though  not 
always,  separated  from  the  first 
discoidal  cell,  and,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  one  sub-family,  the  Aphi- 
diniB,  by  the  non-existence  of  a 
real  articulation  between  the 
second  and  third  abdominal  seg- 
ments" (Cressou).  In  their  habits 
and  general  appearance  they  do  not 
differ  from  ordinary  Ichneumon- 
ids,  though,  as  a  rule,  of  smaller 
size.  The  group  is  represented  by 
Bracou  and  Microgaster;  the 
species  of  the  latter  spin  their 
cylindrical  cocoons  either  within 
the  bodies  of  caterpillars,  or  fasten 
them  in  a  thick  mass  to  the  ex- 
terior. The  species  of  Aphidius 
are  parasitic  in  Aphides. 

Family  Chalcididae. — The  fore 
wings  are  nearly  veiuless;  the  pos- 
terior margin  of  the  prothorax  not 
reaching  the  tegulae;  while  the 
ovipositor  issues  from  before  the 
end  of  the  abdomen.  The  Chal- 
cids  are  generally  minute;  many  of 
them  of  beautiful  shades  of  green.    Fig-   214.— Parasite  of  the  cabbage 

with      metallic      reflections.       A      }'""f!'^J-  ,*'"'''''''  ^'  ^''"^'®'  "' 

J,  . .  r     ^y  larva:  a,  pupa, 

goodly    proportion    of    them    are 

secondary  parasites,  viz.,  are  parasitic  on  other  Chalcids;  some  de- 
posit their  eggs  in  galls.     Typical  genera  are  Pteromalus  (P.  pupa- 
rum  Linn.,  Fig.  214),  Semiotelhis,  and  Chalcis.     Eurytoma  hordei 
Harris  is  the  wheat  joint-worm,  not  being  carnivorous. 
Family  Proctotrupidae. — In  these  minute  egg-parasites,  as  many  of 
them  are,  the  prothorax  extends  to  the  tegulae,  and 
the  ovipositor  issues  from  the  end  or  apex  of  the  ab- 
domen.    The  wings  are  also  almost  veinless,  and  in 
the  minuter  forms  they  are  lobed  or  fissured  with 
long  fringes.     Manj'^  species,  as  those  of  Mymar, 
Teleas,  and  Flatygaster  (Fig.  215),  lay  their  eggs  in 
Fig.  21.5.  —  Egg-  those  of  other  insects,  and  hence  they  are  the  mi- 
parasite  of  nutest  of  H3'menoptera.     Pteraiamus puinami  Pack. 
caiiker-woim.     ^^  ^^^^  one-ninetieth  of  an  inch  long. 
Family  Pelecinidae. — In  the  single  genus  representing  this  group 
the  anteniiEB  are  long,  not  elbowed,  and  thread-like;  and  the  male 
abdomen  is  clavate,  while  that  of  the  female  is  remarkably  long  and 
slender.     Pelecinus  polycerator  Drury. 


170 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Family  Chrysididae. — In  the  species  of  this  interesting  group,  there 


Fig.  217.— Chrysis  hilaris. 


Fig.  316.— Peleclnus,  male  and  female.    Natural  size. 

are  only  from  three  to  live  complete  abdominal  segments,  the 
remainder  forming  a  telescopic,  retractile 
tube,  containing  a  sting-like  ovipositor. 

The  Chr3'sis  flies  are  blue,  green,  and 
ruby-red,  with  rich  metallic  reflections. 
The  females,  cuckoo-like,  lay  their  eggs 
in  the  already  provisioned  nests  usually 
of  solitary  wasps  and  bees,  the  larvae  eat- 
ing the  food  stored  up,  causing  starvation 
and  death  to  the  young  of  their  hosts. 
Typical  genera  are  Cleptes,  Elampus, 
Hedychrum,  Chrysis  and  Parnopes. 

The  ants,  formerly  all  included  in  the  old  family  Formi- 

cidae,  are  now  regarded  as  forming  a  section  or  super-family 

Heterogyna,  which  is  characterized  by  the  petiole  of  the 

abdomen   having  one  or  more  scales  or  nodes;  while  the 

antennae  are  elbowed.      Ants  live  in  societies  consisting, 

besides   males   and   females,    of  workers.     There  are  five 

families,  characterized  as  follows: 

Family  Formicidae. — In  this  (and  the  three  following  families)  the 
petiole  has  but  a  single  joint;  the  abdomen  proper  (not  including 
the  petiole)  is  not  constricted  between  the  tirst  and  second  segments, 
while  the  mandibles  are  inserted  wide  apart.  The  clj^peus  is  always 
distinct  and  often  very  large;  the  frontal  crest  is  more  or  less  long, 
not  surrounding  the  insertion  of  the  antennae,  and  the  petiole  is 
almost  always  surmounted  by  an  erect  scale.  Most  of  our  ants  be- 
long to  this  group;  their  larvae  usually  spin  a  thin  but  tough  cocoon. 
Ants  are  fossorial,  digging  mines  and  galleries  underground,  or 
excavating  them  in  old  stumps  and  trees.  A  complicated  society  or 
nest  of  ants  is  called  a  "formicarium;"  the  work  of  which  is  carried 
on  by  the  wingless  individuals,  called  workers. 

Certain  ants  enslave  other  species;  have  herds  of  cattle,  the 
aphides;  tunnel  broad  rivers,  lay  up  seeds  for  use  in  the  winter- 
time, are  patterns  of  industry,  and  exhibit  a  readiness  in  overcoming 
extraordinary  emergencies  which  shows  that  they  have  sufficient 


ORDER  HTMENOPTERA. 


Ill 


reasoning  powers  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  their  life;  their  ordi- 
nary acts  being  instinctive,  viz.,  the  results  of  inherited  habits. 
Typical  genera  are  Camponotus,  Polyergus,  Formica,  Myrmeco- 
cystus,  and  Tapinoma 

Family  Odontomachidae. — Mandibles  very  long  and  suddenly  re- 
curved within  at  tip,  inserted  close  to  each  other.     Odontomachus. 

Family  Dorylidae.— Ants  with  a  very  small  or  even  indistinct 


Fig.  Z\9.—Eciton  mexicana;  worker-major;  a,  front  view  of  head. 

clypeus;  frontal  crest  very  short;  petiole  depressed,  uodiform. 
Represented  by  a  single  genus,  Labidus,  of  which  only  the  males 
are  known;  and  they  are  supposed  to  be  the  males  of  Eciton. 

Family  Poneridae. — Abdomen  proper  constricted  between  the  first 
and  second  segments.     Pouera. 

Family  M3mnicidae. — In  the  stinging  ants  the  petiole  consists  of 
two  joints.  Myrmica  molesta  Say  is  found  all  over  the  world;  other 
typical  genera  are  Atta,  Eciton,  Pseudomyrma,  Pogonomyrmex, 
and  Pheidole.  The  workers  are  divided  into  two  sets;  those  with 
large  heads  are  called  worker-majors  or  soldiers,  and  the  smaller  ones 
worker-minors. 

The  group  of  Fossores,  or  fossorial  Hymenoptera,  consist- 
ing of  the  sand-  and  wood-wasps,  etc.,  is  divided  into  a 
number  of  families,  some  of  which  may  yet  be  united.  The 
petiole  is  simple,  i.e.,  not  formed  into  scales  or  nodes;  there 
are  no  workers,  though  the  females  of  the  Mutillidae  are 


179 


ENTOMOLOar. 


always  wingless.     The  legs  of  tlie  females  are  adapted  for 
burrowing,  and  not  fitted  for  collecting  pollen. 


Fig.  219.— E'citoH  mexicana;  worker-minor. 
Family  Mutillidae. — Females  wingless;  iu  this  as  also  in  the  three 
following  families  the  prothorax  is  produced  behind,  so  that  the  hind- 
er angles  reach  the  tegulte.  The  intermediate  tibiie  have  two  apical 
spurs.  In  this  group,  as  well  as  in  the  Scoliidae,  the  first  ventral 
segment  of  the  abdomen  is  distinctly  separated  from  the  second  by 
a  more  or  less  deep  constriction.  The  Mutillids  are  usually  scarlet, 
or  scarlet  and  black,  and  the  body  is  more  or  less  hirsute;  they  sting 


Fig.  220.— Mutilla,  female. 


Fig.  231.— Myrmosa,  male  and  wingless  female. 


badly,  and  store  their  burrows  in  the  sand  with  flies  and  other  in- 
sects. Mutilla  ferrugata  Fabr.  (Fig.  220);  Myrmosa  unicolor  Say 
(Fig.  221). 

Family  Scoliidae. — The  females  are  always  winged,  and  the  middle 
tibite  have  but  one  apical  spur.  The  head  is  broad  in  front,  the 
eyes  indented,  while  the  female  autenuoe  diflier  from  those  of  the 
males  in  being  short,  thick,  and  elbowed.  The  species  of  Scolia 
are  black  banded  with  yellow,  and  live  as  parasites  in  the  grubs  of 
beetles.     Tiphia  inm'nata  Say  is  a  common  black  species. 


ORDER  HYMENOPTERA. 


173 


Family  Sapygidae.— lu  these  sand-wasps  there  is  no  const rictiou  be- 
tween the  tirst  and  second  segments  of  the  abdomen;  the  hind  legs 
are  short,  and  the  eyes  indented.  Tlie  species  enter  the  burrows  of 
Osmia  and  other  bees,  depositing  their  eggs  in  the  cells  of  their 
hosts.     Sapyga  mnrUnii  Smith. 

Family  Pompilidae.— The  body  of  these  often  very  large  sand -wasps 
is  oblong  and  more  or  less  compressed;  theantenme  are  not  elbowed, 
and  theliind  legs  are  long,  reaching  beyond  the  end  of  the  abdomen, 
while  the  eyes  are  not  indented.     These  active,  black  wasps  store 


^^. 


Fig.  222.— Pompilus  formosus,  the  Tarantula-killer.    Natural  size. 

their  burrows,  made  in  the  .sand,  with  spiders.  One  of  the  largest 
species  is  Pompilus  formosus  Say. 

Family  Sphecidae. — Very  rapacious  wasps  with  a  pedicelled  ab- 
domen, the  petiole  slender,  cylindrical,  smooth;  flagellum  slender  at 
the  end;  middle  tibia;  with  two  apical  spurs.  They  rapidly  dig  in 
gravel-paths  and  sand-banks,  provisioning  their  nests  with  cater- 
pillars, grasshoppers,  or  spiders,  which  they  sting  between  the  joints 
of  their  body,  paralyzing  them  so  that  they  live  on  until  their  own 
larvte  hatch  and  eat  them.  Sp/tex  icJineumonea  Linn,  tills  its  burrow 
with  grasshoppers.  The  species  of  Pelopaeus  are  called  "mud- 
daubers,"  as  they  build  their  cells  of  dabs  of  mud  on  the  walls  of 
houses,  etc. 

Family  Ampulicidse. — Prothorax  long  and  narrow,  ending  in  front 
in  a  neck;  raetathorax  long,  truncated  behind;  clypeus  keeled, 
beak-like.     RJiinopsis  cdnalknldUi  Say;  Ampulex  sibiriai  Fabr, 

Family  Larridae. — Wasps  of  this  group  have  the  mandibles  notched 
on  the  outside  near  the  base;  the  labrum  is  concealed;  the  abdomen 
is  oval  conical.     They  burrow  in  sand-banks,  provisioning  their 


174 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


cells  with  locusts,  grasshoppers,  etc.      Larrada  semirufa  Cresson 
preys  on  young  locusts. 

Family  Bembecidae. — The  labrum  in  this  family  is  distinct,  ex- 
serted,  and  sometimes  long   and   beak-like.      Stizus  speciosm  Say 


Fig.  223.— Sand-wasp,  Sphex  ichneumonea.    Natural  size, 
preys  on  the  Cicada;  the  species  of  Bembex  seize  flies,  bearing  them 
to  their  nests;  our  common  species  is  Bemhex  fasciata  Fabr. 

Family  Nyssonidae. -Labrum short,  either  not  or  scarcely  exserted. 
Nysson  lateralis  Say;  Gorytes  flavicm^nis  Harris.  These  sand- wasps 
prey  on  flies,  Tettigonise,  etc. 

Family  Philanthidae. — In  these  wasps  the  prothorax  is  very  short, 
transverse,  not  extending  back  to  the  tegulse;  the  fore  wings  have 


Fig.  224.~Larrada  grasping  a  young  locust,  and  about  to  sting  it. 
three  complete  sub-marginal  cells,  and  the  abdomen  is  either  sessile 
or    sub-sessile.     PhiliuMus    vertilabrix    Say;    Cercerk    deserta    Say. 
These  wasps  provision  their  nests  with  the  grubs,  of  weevils  and 
Buprestids,  and  adult  beetles,  as  well  as  honey-bees. 


ORDER  HTMENOPTERA.  175 

Family  Mimesidae. — Abdomen  petiolate,  the  petiole  flattened  and 
usually  furrowed  above;  antenutB  clavate;  middle  tibiae  with  but 
one  apical  spur.     Mimesa  cressonii  Pack. ;  Psen  leucopus  Say. 

Family  Mellinidae. — This  group  is  represented  bj^  a  single  genus, 
in  which  the  abdomen  is  petiolate;  the  head  cubical,  front  very 
broad,  eyes  indented;  and  the  first  sub-marginal  cell  receives  a  re- 
current vein.     MelUnus  bimaculatus  Say. 

Family  Pemphredonidae. — Wood- wasps,  in  which  the  anterior  wings 
have  two  complete  submargiual  cells;  prothorax  short,  transverse; 
metathorax  short,  rounded  posteriorly;  clypeus  not  cariuate  or 
beak-like.  Stigmus  fraternus  Say  mines  the  stems  of  the  Syringa; 
Gemonus  inornatus  Harris  burrows  in  the  elder;  Passala'cus  rnandi- 
bularis  Cressou  burrows  in  company  with  the  two  preceding  species. 

Family  Crabronidse. — These  wood-wasps  are  easily  recognized  by 
their  cubical  heads;  short  and  wide  clypeus;  and  by  having  but  one 
submargiual  and  two  discoidal  cells.  The  habits  of  the  species  are 
extremely  interesting.  Crabro  sex-maculatus  Say  mines  decaying 
wood,  and  C.  singiUaris  Smith  bores  in  posts.  In  the  males  of 
Thyreopus  the  fore  legs  have  shield-like  expansions  which  are  either 
striped  or  dotted  with  black.  Rhopalwm  pedicellatum  Pack,  bores 
into  the  stems  of  the  rose,  Corcorus,  Spirtea,  etc. 

The  section  or  super-family  Diplopteryga,  correspondiug 
to  the  Vespidae  of  early  atithors^,  comprises  the  trtie  wasps, 
in  which  the  wings  when  at  rest  are  folded  lengthwise.  The 
prothorax  reaches  back  to  the  base  of  the  wings^,  the  eyes  are 
kidney-shaped,  and  the  legs  are  smooth,  not  spiny  or  bristled. 

Family  Masaridae. — Auteunae  clubbed  at  tip.   Masaris  vespoides  Cres. 

Family  Eumenidae.  — In  this  and  the  next  family  the  antennae  are 
filiform.  Middle  tibite  with  one  spur  at  apex;  tarsal  claws  one- 
toothed;  solitary;  no  workers.  The  solitary  wasps  are  represented 
by  the  genera  Eumenes,  Odynerus,  etc.  Eumenes  fraterna  Say  con- 
structs a  round  cell  of  pellets  of  mud,  as  big  as  a  cherry,  which  it 
fills  with  small  caterpillars;  Odynerus  albophaleratus  Saussure  also 
preys  on  small  caterpillars,  which  it  stores  in  round  mud-cells. 

Family  Vespidae. — In  the  social  or  paper  wasps,  the  republic  is  a 
numerous  one,  there  being  many 
workers.  They  all  have  two  spurs 
at  the  end  of  the  middle  tibia?.  Po- 
listes  americanus  Fabr.  and  other 
species  build  nests  consisting  of 
few  cells  in  one  row,  attached 
mouth  downward  to  bushes.  The 
species  of  Vespa  build  several  tiers 
of  cells,  arranged  mouth  down- 
ward, and  enveloped  by  a  wall  of 
several  thicknesses  of  paper.  Our 
commoner  species  are  Vespa  m'ena- 
ria  Fabr.  and  a  larger  species,  the  ^^''-  ^^^--^^spa  macuUda.  Nat.  size, 
white-faced  wasp,  Vespa  maculata  Linn.  The  females  found  the 
colony,  and  raise  a  brood  of  workers,  which  early  in  the  summer 
assist  the  queen  in  completing  the  nest. 


176 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


The  bees,  formerly  included  in  the  family  Apidge,  belong 
to  the  section  Aniliophila,  which  is  divided  into  two  fami- 
lies. In  all  bees  the  basal  joint  of  the  hind  tarsi  is  (ex- 
cept in  tlie  parasitic  species 
of  Nomada,  etc.)  broad  and 
flat,  generally  bristly,  and 
adapted  for  carrying  pollen. 

Family  Andrenidae. —  Solitary 
bees  with  the  labium  flattened, 
shorter  than  the  mentum.  Hulictus 
pamllehts  Say  excavates  in  fields 
nests  like  those  of  Andrena  vicina 
Smith  (Fig.  226). 

Family  Apidae. — In  the  social 
bees,  where  there  are,  as  in  Bombus 
and  Apis,  numerous  workers,  the 
labium  is  .slender,  not  flattened, 
and  is  longer  than  the  mentum; 
the  basal  joints  of  the  labial  palpi 
are  longer  than  the  others. 

The  queen  humUe-bee  hiber- 
nates, and  in  the  spring  founds  her 
colony  by  laying  up  pellets  of  pol- 
len in  some  subterranean  mouse- 
nest  or  in  a  stump,  and  the  young, 
hatching,  gradually  eat  the  pollen, 
and  when  it  is  exhausted  and  they 
are  fully  fed  they  spin  an  oval 
cylindrical  cocoon.  The  first  brood 
are  workers,  the  second  males  and 
females.  The  partly  hexagonal 
cells  of  the  stinglcss  bees  of  the 
tropics  (Melipona)  are  built  of  wax 
or  clay,  while  the  hexagonal  cells  of 
the  honey-bee  are  made  b}-  the  bees 
from  wax  secreted  by  minute  sub- 
cutaneous glands  in  the  abdomen. 
Though  the  cells  are  hexagonal, 
they  are  not  built  with  mathemati- 
cal exactitude,  the  sides  not  always 
being  of  the  same  length  and  thick- 
cess. 
The  cells  made  for  the  young  or 
Fig  236 —Nest  of  Andrena  gr  level  of  larval  drones  of  the  honey-bee  are 
/f:;a';:ipl\^1u\1^V;o,,r;,rs  larger  than  those  of  the  workers, 
witli  All  eKg  laid  on  it  /  polleu  and  the  snigle  queen  cell  is  large 
uuiss  fieshh  dep>sit((l  by  the  bee  and  irregularl}^  slipper-shaped. 
Natural  size.-After  Enieiton.  Drone-eggs  are  supposed  by  Dzier- 

zun  itnd  Siebold  not  to  be  fertilized,  wnuu  the  queen-bp".  is  the  oul) 


■  v^^  ^  ^ 


ORDER  HYMENOPTERA. 


177 


animal  which  can  produce  either  sex  at  will.  Certain  worker-eggs 
have  been  known  to  transform  into  queen-bees.  On  the  other  hand, 
worker-bees  may  in  rare  cases  lay  drone-eggs. 

The  Ggg,  from  which  the  queen  develops  is  like  that  of  a  worker, 
the  difference  arising  in  larval  life,  owing  to  a  change  of  treatment 
of  the  larva  by  the  nurses,  its  food,  derived  from  pollen  by  digestion,* 
being  different  from  that  provided  for  the  worker.  The  first  or  old 
queen,  when  the  population  of  the  hive  becomes  excessive,  leaves  the 
hive  to  establish  a  new  colony.  This  is  called  ' '  swarming."  The  queen 
is  very  fertile,  having  the  power  of  laying  between  2000  and  3000  eggs 
a  day,  or  "two  eggs  per  minute  for  weeks  in  succession."  Cheshire 
states  that  the  larva  feeds  four  days,  moulting  probably  six  times; 
and  finally,  when  it  stops  eating,  lines  its  cell  with  a  silken  cocoon, 
though  before  this  can  be  spun  a  cover  or  "sealing"  is  put  over  the 
cell  by  the  workers,  there  being  minute  openings  in  the  cover  for  the 
passage  of  air  into  the  cell.  A  strong  colony  or  "slock"  may  contain 
as  many  as  12,000  larvae,  all  of  which  are  fed  by  the  nurses  or  workers 
with  pollen  and  honey.  In  about  a  fortnight  from  the  time  of  seal- 
ing, the  bee  bites  through  the  sealing,  and  twenty-four  hours  after 
drying  and  preening  itself,  enters  upon  the  duties  of  the  hive. 

*  Cheshire  says:  "The  secretion,  commonly,  though,  as  I  bold, 
erroneously,  called  'royal  jelly,'  is  added  unstintingly  to  the  end." 
The  first  brood  food  "  is  a  highly  nitrogenous  tissue-former,  derived 
from  pollen  by  digestion,  and  having  apparently  a  singular  power  in 
developing  the  generative  faculty;  for  I  find  drone  larvae  receive 
much  more  of  it  than  those  of  workers,  to  whom  any  accidental  ex- 
cess possibly  gives  the  power  of  ovipositing,  as  we  find  it  in  the 
abnormal  fertile  worker."  He  thinks  also  that  the  queen,  if  not 
always,  at  least  during  the  time  of  egg-laying,  is  fed  by  the  workers 
from  the  secretion  of  the  chyle-gland  (No.  1),  with  probable  additions 
from  some  of  the  other  three,  there  being  four  kinds  of  glands,  in 
all,  in  the  head  and  thorax.   (Cheshire's  Bees  and  Bee-keeping,  p.  82.) 


Wasp  hanging  by  one  foot,  and  eating  a  fly.— After  Emerton. 
12 


CHAPTEE  IV. 
INSECT-ARCHITECTURE. 

Many  young  naturalists  are  deterred  from  studying  in. 
sects  by  the  lack  of  books  enabling  them  to  readily  identify 
the  species  they  collect;  but  if  handicapped  in  this  direc- 
tion, they  can  nevertheless  observe  the  curious  habits  of 
insects,  and  form  most  interesting  collections  of  their  co- 
coons, nests,  and  various  contrivances  for  concealment  from 
their  enemies. 

Man's  earliest,  most  primitive  attempts  at  architecture 
were  undoubtedly  in  the  direction  of  obtaining  shelter  from 
too  great  heat  or  cold,  from  rain  and  snow,  and  from  hos- 
tile beasts  and  more  hostile  men.  For  the  same  reason 
insects  make  shelters  of  various  sorts,  both  for  their  eggs, 
their  young,  and  themselves.  More  unconscious  (and  often, 
perhaps,  semi-conscious)  ingenuity  is  exj)ended  by  insects, 
especially  the  social  kinds,  than  by  any  of  the  higher 
animals,  not  even  excej)ting  the  birds.  We  know  that 
fishes  in  rare  instances  build  rude  nests,  and  show  some 
slight  degree  of  care  for  their  progeny;  squirrels  and  mice 
faintly  imitate  birds  in  nest-building:  but  where  even  among 
birds  do  we  find  nests  so  complex  and  cunningly  contrived 
as  those  of  ants,  paper- wasps,  and  social  bees  ?  Do  we  really 
know  that  birds  and  beasts,  the  domesticated  species  ex- 
cepted, are,  as  regards  architectural  skill  and  general 
reasoning  power,  any  higher  in  the  intellectual  scale  than 
the  social  insects,  with  their  different  kinds  of  individuals 
assigned  to  this  or  that  duty,  their  laborers  and  soldiers, 
and,  in  the  case  of  ants,  their  system  of  slave-labor,  their 
herds  of  milch-cows  (the  Aphides),  and  genius  for  house- 
keeping, nursing,  and  civic  police  duties?     But  not  content 


INSEGT-ARCEITECTURE. 


179 


with  generalities,  let  us  look  at  a  few  instructive  examples 
of  insect-architecture,  beginning  witli  tlie  simi^ler  and  end- 
ing with  the  more  complex. 

Perhaps  the  first  impulse  of  an  insect  in  endeavoring  to 
escape  from  some  enemy  is  to  burrow  in  the  soil,  or,  if 
aquatic  in  its  liabits,  to  bury  itself  in  the  mud  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  pool  or  stream  it  inhabits.     Such  habits  once 


Fig.  22r.— Oak-leaf 
rolled  sidewise. 


Fig.  228.— Oak-leaf  rolled  at  the  end. 


acquired  and  transmitted  would  lead  a  wood-eating  or  leaf- 
gnawing  insect  to  save  its  life  by  burrowing  into  and  mining 
leaves  or  bark,  or  even  rolling  over  the  edge  of  a  leaf  and 
hiding  under  it;  and  such  insects  after  a  number  of  gen- 
erations, meeting  with  success  in  the  struggle  for  exist- 
ence, without  much  doubt  founded  the  insect-guilds,  if  we 
may  so  style  them,  of  masons,  carpenters,  and  builders. 

When  we  consider  how  many  kinds  of  leaf-rollers  there 
are  among  different  orders  of  insects,  we  may  perhaps 
regard  this  as  the  readiest  and  most  simple  method  of 
forming  a  shelter.  Among  the  caterpillars  of  the  smaller 
moths  there  are  multitudes  whieli  roll  up  portions  of  the 
leaf,  whole  leaves,  or  even  bind  several  leaves  together 
with  silken  cords.     How   this    is    done   may  be   seen    bv 


180 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Figs.  227-230;,  taken  from  tlie  work  of  Keaumur ;  but  any 
one  can  find  similar  examples,  as  we  have  done,  on  our 
own  oaks  and  willows.  By  watching 
the  little  worm  with  a  lens,  one  can 
realize  how  deftly  the  unconscious  me- 
chanic begins  to  turn  over  the  point  of 
a  leaf,  holding  it  in  place  by  first  attach- 
ing a  single  silken  strand  to  a  fixed 
,|,  point  so  as  to  give  the  first  turn,  and 
then  gradually  and  with  a  good  deal 
of  pains  hauling  the  rolled  portion 
over,  and  attaching  new  strands  until 
finally  a  well-shaped  roll  is  made  in 
which  the  insect  can  safely  reside  dur- 
ing its  caterpillar  existence.  In  a  single 
season  an  industrious  collector  could 
make  a  most  interesting  collection  of 
tents  and  rolls  formed  by  caterpillars — 
and  what   a  zest  would  it  give  to  his 

Fig.  229.— Sorrel-leaf  cut  Walks  ! 

by  a  caterpillar.  Another  order  of  rolls  are  those  made 

by  the  leaf-rolling  weevils,  whose  very  long  snouts  have 
short  jaws  at  the  end,  to  aid  in  the  work;  though,  judg- 
ing by  the  readiness  with  which  they  use  their  feet, 
there  seems  to  be  some  intelligence  lodged  in  those 
appendages.  The  singular  thimble-like  rolls  of  Attelabus 
rlwis  may  be  found  in  June  and  July  on  the  alder. 
AVhen  about  to  lay  her  eggs,  the  female  begins  to  eat  a 
slit  near  the  base  of  the  leaf,  on  each  side  of  the  midrib  and 
at  right  angles  to  it,  so  that  the  leaf  may  be  folded  together. 
Before  beginning  to  roll  up  the  leaf  she  gnaws  the  stem 
nearly  off,  so  that,  after  the  roll  is  made  and  has  dried  for 
perhaps  a  day,  it  is  easily  detached  by  the  wind  and  falls  to 
the  ground.  Then  folding  the  leaf,  she  tightly  rolls  it  up, 
neatly  tucking  in  the  ends,  until  a  compact,  cylindrical, 
solid  mass  of  vegetation  is  formed.  Before  the  leaf  is  en- 
tirely rolled,  she  deposits  a  single  Qgg,  rarely  two,  in  the 


INSECT-ARCHITECTURE. 


181 


middle,  next  to  the  midrib,  where  it  lies  loosely  in  a  little 
cavity.  While  all  this  is  going  on  her  consort  stands  near 
by,  and  she  occasionally  runs  to  him  to  receive  his  caresses, 
again  resuming  her  work.  These  rolls  remain  on  the 
A  bushes  sometimes  for  sev- 

eral days,  but  probably 
drop  by  the  time  the  larva 
escapes  from  the  egg;  and 
it  seems  probable  that  the 
grub  uses  the  roll  for  a 
shelter  until  it  matures 
and  is  ready  to  enter  on 
its  transformations  to  a 
beetle.  Another  species 
found  on  the  oak  does 
not  devote  the  whole  leaf 
to  a  single  roll,  for  three 

B 


Fia.  230.  • 


-A,  willow-leaves  rolled  by  a  caterpillar;  B,  willow-leaves  rolled-  seen 
in  section. 


or  four  small  rolls  may  be  found  on  one  leaf. 

The  gall-makers  are  not  the  species  of  Cynips  alone,  but 
also  certain  gnats  and  Aphides,  including  the  Phylloxera, 
which  inhabit  shelters,  due  to  the  morbid  growth  and  mul- 
tiplication, of  cells  on  the  leaves  and  twigs,  or  roots,  as  the 


182 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


case  may  be,  stung  by  tlie  })arunt,  whose  instincts  are  exer- 
cised in  selecting  the  pro2)er  plant,  and  portion  of  plant,  to 
sting.  Although  the  gall-flies  are  not  the  direct  architects 
of  the  galls,  no  collection  of  insect- products  would  be  com- 
plete without  a  series  of  galls,  of  which  there  are  so  many 
kinds. 

Intermediate  between  leaf  and  wood  miners,  and  case- 
worms,  are  certain  Pyralid  moths  which  not  only  crumple 
and  roll  up  the  leaves  of  plants,  but  piece  out  their  mines 
by  tubular  additions  to  the  openings,  which  form  cases  in 
which  the  caterpillar  securely  hides.  As  examples  are 
Aci'obasis  jnglandis  and  Phycita  nebula.  Another  Pyralid 
{Phi/cis  ruhrifasciella)  mines  the  buds  and  recently  ex- 
panded young  leaves  of  the  pig-hickory,  and  also  bores 
into  the  base  of  the  leaf-stalks.  It  also  builds  out  the 
mouth  of  its  mine,  adding  a  tube  formed  of  grains  of 
its  excrement,  in  which  it  lives  and  finally 
transforms. 

Besides  mining  leaves,  which  is  one  of 
the  humblest  kinds  of  architectural  effort, 
certain  Tineid  moths  construct  flat,  oval, 
or  cylindrical  silk-lined  sacks  or  cases  in 
which  they  live,  and  which,  like  Diogenes 
and  his  tub,  they  carry  about  with  them. 
The  clothes-moth  in  its  larval  stage  con- 
structs the  too-familiar  cases  of  felting, 
formed  of  closely-woven  bits  of  woollen  and 
lined  with  silk.  A  whole  group  of  sack- 
bearers  (Psychids),  small  and  large,  build 


FiQ.  231.  — Case  of 
the  basket-worm. 
—After  Harris. 


Fig.  232. — Larva  and  case  of  Chlamys. 


spindle-shaped  sacks  covered  with  bits  of  leaves  and  twigs, 
which  are  so  arranged  as  to  resemble  basket-work.     One  of 


INSECT-ARCHITECTURE. 


183 


these  in  Europe  {Psyche  helix)  constructs  a  snail-like  case. 
Beetle-grubs  rarely  construct  such  cases,  but  the  little 
Chlamys  is  a  genuine  sack-bearer,  as  is  another  leaf-eater. 
Corset noptera  dominicana. 

All  the  Caddis-flies  are  sack -bearers  in  their  larval  state, 
and  the  larvae  are  from  this  habit  called  case-worms.  The 
worm  apparently  builds  them  by  adding  grain  after  grain 
of  coarse  sand  to  the  mouth  of  the  tube,  lining  the  interior 
with  silk;  if  there  is  moss  at  hand,  bits  are  fastened  to  the 
exterior,  or  large  pieces  of  leaves.     Fig.  233,  a,  represents 


Fig.  233.— Different  forms  of  cases  of  caddis-flies. 

the  case  of  the  European  Phryganea  grandis;  but  we  have 
a  similar  one,  formed  by  cutting  a  leaf  into  a  broad  ribbon- 
like strip  and  then  rolling  it  into  a  tube.  Some  are  like 
horns,  while  the  case  of  Helicopsyche  (Fig.  233,  d)  has  often 
been  mistaken  by  shell-collectors  for  a  fresh-water  snail 
(Valvata). 

As  architects  ants  are  preeminent,  and  they  evince  their 
skill  in  construction  not  by  mounds  alone,  but  also  by 
digging  deep  wells  and  tunnelling  broad  rivers,  as  well  as 
in  laying  out  roads  above  and  below  ground. 

While  our  native  species  are  not  known  to  form  elaborate 
nests,  a  greenish  ant  in  India  {GiJcophylla  smaragdina)  is 


184  ENTOMOLOGY. 

said  to  form  a  nest,  sometimes  a  foot  in  diameter,  by  draw- 
ing living  leaves  together  without  detaching  them  from  the 
branch,  and  uniting  them  with  a  fine  white  web.  We 
wonder  at  the  instinct  of  the  tailor-bird,  but  there  are 
thousands  of  species  of  insects  which  show  as  much  intel- 
ligence in  sewing  together  their  shelters.  Another  Indian 
ant  makes  a  small  nest,  about  half  an  inch  or  more  in 
diameter,  of  some  paper-like  material,  which  it  fixes  on  a 
leaf.  In  Brazil  certain  ants  construct  large  nests,  called 
"  negro-heads,"  which  resemble  wasp-nests,  being  attached 
like  them  to  the  branches  of  trees,  though  on  removing 
the  outer  wraps  they  are  found  to  differ  in  having  no  regu- 
lar cells,  but  consist  of  intricate  curved  galleries  leading 
into  the  interior  chambers  and  passages. 

But  it  is  in  the  nests  of  wasps  and  bees  that  we  have 
constructions  which  attest  the  highest  degree  of  architec- 
tural skill  known  in  the  animal  creation,  those  of  man 
alone  excepted.  It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that  here, 
as  elsewhere,  Nature  does  not  make  a  leap.  She  does  not 
present  us  at  the  outset  with  fully  developed  paper-wasps^ 
nests  and  colonies,  or  the  highly  complicated  nest  and 
colony  of  the  honey-bee.  These  were,  without  much  doubt, 
gradual  developments,  the  results  of  many  failures  and 
successes  of  which  we  have  no  record.  There  is  a  long 
series  of  wasps,  for  example,  whose  nests  show  different 
degrees  of  complexity,  which  gradually  lead  up  to  the  nest 
of  the  paper-wasp  with  its  numerous  cells  arranged  in 
several  stories,  and  all  walled  in  by  papery  layers. 

We  have  first  simple  holes  excavated  in  the  sand  by  the 
S^jhex  iclmeumonea  (Fig.  223).  We  have  noticed  a  com- 
pany of  nearly  a  dozen  of  these  large  reddish  wasps,  whose 
bodies  are  covered  by  a  rich  golden  pubescence.  Each  one 
for  itself — for  in  these  solitary  wasps  there  is  no  combined 
action — began  to  dig  its  hole  in  a  gravelly  walk,  removing 
the  little  stones  and  coarse  grains  of  sand  with  its  jaws; 
as  the  hole  deepened  it  loosened  the  earth  with  its  jaws, 
and  threw  it  out  of  the  hole  both  with  its  jaws  and  fore 


INSBCT-ARCHITEOTURE.  186 

feet,  and  when  the  sand  accumulated  so  as  to  be  in  its  way 
it  would  retreat  backwards  and  push  the  dirt  still  farther 
back  from  the  mouth  of  its  cell  with  its  hind  legs.  In  this 
way,  working  literally  with  tooth  and  nail,  it  dug  a  shaft 
five  or  six  inches  deep,  and  then  flew  away  after  grass- 
hoppers to  store  it,  finally  filling  the  mouth  so  that  no  dis- 
tinct traces  of  its  work  would  remain. 

A  decided  step  upward  is  the  home  of 
the  mud-dauber.  This  wasp  moistens 
the  dirt  with  its  saliva,  forming  pellets 
of  mud,  which  it  plasters  on  walls  or 
rafters,  storing  the  cell  with  spiders, 
etc.  In  our  common  yellow-legged  mud- 
dauber  {Pelopcens  Jiavipes)  the  cells  are 
built  of  long  pellets  of  mud  placed  in 
two  rows,  and  diverging  from  the  mid-  ^ 

'  &      »  Fig     234— An    African 

die.  mud-dauber. 

The  wood-wasjjs  excavate  their  burrows  in  the  hollow 
stems  of  pithy  plants,  such  as  the  elder,  syringa,  raspberry, 
or  blackberry,  the  idea  seeming  to  be  to  save  as  much  labor 
as  possible;  some  species  going  so  far,  or  rather  doing  so 
little,  as  to  refit  old  nail-holes  for  their  nesting  purposes. 

Coming  to  the  true  solitary  wasps,  we  find  species  of 
very  different  uest-building  habits.  While  one  kind  of 
Odynerus  builds  separate  cells  of  mud,  placing  them  in 
oak-galls  or  in  deserted  nests  of  the  tent-caterpillar,  another 
builds  several  cells  together  under  a  common  covering  of 
sandy  mud  fastened  to  a  stack  of  grass.  More  of  an  archi- 
tectural effort  is  seen  in  the  flask-shaped  cells  of  mud  which 
Eumenes  fraterna  builds,  attaching  several  of  them  in  a 
row  to  a  branch,  filling  the  interiors  with  little  caterpillars. 

Of  a  more  advanced  order  is  the  nest  of  Icaria,  which 
shows  that  each  cell  is  built  independently  in  regular  hex- 
agons; sometimes  the  cells  are  arranged  in  two  or  three 
rows;  while  in  the  nest  of  our  PoUstes  annularis,  often  to 
be  found  attached  to  bushes,  the  cells  are  crowded  together 
in  one  plane  or  story.     But  in  a  delicate  nest  of  a  South 


186  ENTOMOLOGY. 

American  wasp  (Mischocyttarus),  which  is  suspended  by  a 
long  pedicel,  the  cells,  few  as  they  are,  are  arranged  in  two 
stories.  The  transition  from  this  form  to  the  nests  of 
Vespa  and  allied  forms,  which  are  covered  in  with  walls  of 
paper  with  a  single  entrance,  is  not  great.  The  paper- 
"wasps  begin  to  build  in  early  summer,  and  we  could  then 
begin  to  form  a  series  of  nests  in  different  stages  of  con- 
struction which  would  be  very  instructive. 

From  among  the  bees  there  can  be  selected  a  series, 
showing  that  at  the  outset  bees  began,  so  to  speak,  in  an 
uncertain  and  tentative  way  to  build  their  homes.  With- 
out much  doubt  the  solitary  bees  preceded  in  geological 
history  the  social  species,  though  at  present  the  geological 
record  is  a  blank,  for  species  of  Andrena,  Xylocopa, 
Bombus,  and  Apis  occur  in  amber  and  other  Miocene 
deposits,  and  we  know  as  yet  nothing  of  the  geological 
succession  of  bees,  none  being  found  in  the  Eocene 
Tertiary. 

As  with  the  wasps,  we  may  begin  our  review  of  the  evi- 
dences of  the  nesting  skill  of  bees  by  first  considering  those 
that  simply  tunnel  the  soil,  as  Andrena,  which  makes  its 
nests  in  pastures,  consisting  of  a  straight  tubular  well  or 
shaft,  from  which  diverge  short  passages  leading  into  the 
brood-chambers  (Fig.  226). 

Certain  other  bees  excavate  tunnels  or  refit  the  hollows 
of  elder  and  other  pithy  shrubs.  The  species  of  Osmia, 
little  green  and  blue  bees,  build  oval  cells  of  mud,  placing 
them  in  different  situations,  either  under  stones  or  in  part- 
ly decaying  trees.  Osmia  simillima,  one  of  our  commonest 
species,  is  shrewd  enough  to  avail  itself  of  the  empty  galls 
of  a  Cynips  common  on  the  oak,  placing  them  in  a  row  on 
the  vaulted  arch  of  this  large  oak-apple. 

A  step  higher  brings  us  to  the  leaf-cutter  bees  (Me- 
gachile),  which  cut  out  circular  pieces  of  rose-leaves,  a 
single  bee  sometimes  building  thirty  cells,  using  during  the 
process  as  many  as  a  thousand  j^ieces.  With  the  pieces 
thus  obtained  she  lines  tubular  hollows  in  trees,  etc.,  and 


INSEGT-ARCHITEGTURE. 


187 


stores  in  each  cell  a  mass  of  pollen^  oa  Avliicli  an  Qgg  is 
placed,  for  the  food  of  the  young  grub. 

Carpenter-bees  are  well  named,  as  with  their  strong  jaws 


Fig.  235.— Leaf-cutter  bee  and  nest. 

they  bore  perfectly  regular  holes  in  pine  boards,  as  straight 
as  if  made  with  an  auger.  The  tunnel  is  sometimes  made 
from  12  to  18  inches  in  length,  and  about  half  an  inch 
in  diameter,  so  as  to  readily  admit  the  bee.  The  industri- 
ous little  carpenter,  working  as  rapidly  as  she  can,  excavates 
her  holes  (in  pine  wood)  at  the  rate  of  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  a  day.  Mr,  Angus  says:  '^  If  I  mistake  not,  it  takes 
her  about  two  days  to  make  her  own  length  at  the  first 
start;  but  this  being  across  the  grain  of  the  wood  may  not 
be  so  easily  done  as  the  remainder,  which  runs  parallel  with 
it.  She  always  follows  the  grain  of  the  wood,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  entrance,  which  is  about  her  own  length." 


188  ENTOMOLOGY, 

Passing  over  the  humble-bees,  which  are  not  skilful 
architects,  we  come  to  the  workers  in  wax,  such  as  the 
stingless  bees  of  the  tropics  (Trigona  and  Melipona),  and 
the  hive-bee,  our  only  domestic  insect.  The  cells  of  Meli- 
pona  are  hexagonal,  but  the  honey-cells  are  irregular  and 
larger  in  size.  The  cells  of  an  Australian  Trigona  are 
arranged  in  combs  similar  to  those  of  the  common  wasp. 
Hence  these  bees  are  a  connecting  link  between  the  solitary 
bees  and  the  honey-bee,  whose  elaborate  style  of  architec 
ture  has  been  so  often  recounted.* 


*  See,  for  an  account  of  the  cells  of  the  honey-bee,  the  latest  and 
best  work  on  the  honey-bee,  "Cheshire's  Bees  and  Beekeeping" 
(3  vols.,  with  numerous  excellent  illustrations;  London,  L.  Upcott 
Gill,  1886-7);  for  essays  on  the  cells  of  bees,  and  the  mathematical 
principles  and  theory  of  construction,  the  writings  of  Maraldi, 
Reaumur,  Huber,  J.  Wvman  (Proc.  Amer.  Acad.  Arts  and  Sciences, 
vii.,  1866),  S.  Haughtoii,  G.  R.  Waterhouse,  F.  Smith,  Tegetmeier, 
Darwin,  and  the  author's  "  Guide  to  the  Study  of  Insects." 


Argynnis  aphrodite;  under  side  shown  on  right. 


CHAPTEE  V. 

INSECTS    INJURIOUS    AND   BENEFICIAL   TO   AGRICUL- 
TURE. 

Economic  Entomology  relates  to  those  insects  which 
prey  on  our  crops;  it  comprises  a  study  of  their  liabits, 
classification,  and  the  remedies  against  their  attacks;  it  also 
includes  a  study  of  insect-parasites  of  the  domestic  animals, 
of  man  himself,  as  well  as  household  pests.  In  short,  this 
branch  of  applied  science  treats  of  the  habits  and  best 
means  of  destroying  any  insect  which  is  in  any  way  in- 
jurious to  human  interests.  To  succeed  well  in  this  applied 
science  one  must  be  a  close,  patient  observer  and  of  a  prac- 
tical turn  of  mind. 

The  number  of  injurious  insects  in  the  United  States  is 
large  and  increasing.  Owing  to  the  destructiveness  of  in- 
troduced species,*  the  large  areas  devoted  to  special  crops, 
and  other  causes,  crops  in  this  country  seem  far  more  liable 
to  insect-depredations  than  in  the  Old  World,  and  the  evil 
is  perhaps  especially  felt  in  the  more  recently  settled  por- 
tions of  the  country. 

Prof.  J.  A.  Lintner,  the  State  Entomologist  of  New  York, 
in  his  first  report  remarks:  "  There  is  probably  not  a  single 


*  The  most  obnoxious  insects  brought  accidentally  from  Europe 
are  the  following:  the  wheat-midge  and  Hessian  fly;  currant-worm 
(Nematiis  ventricosus),  oyster-shell  bark-louse,  apple  Aphis,  hop-louse, 
grain  Aphis,  and  several  other  species  of  plant-lice;  the  coddling- 
moth,  cabbage-buttertly  {Pieris  rape),  cabbage  raoth  {Ephextin  inUr- 
puntella),  cnvxAMi-hoxer  {jUgeria  tipuUfm'mis),  asparagus-beetle,  clover- 
root  borer,  onion-fly  [Phorbia  cejxirum),  and  several  other  root-flies; 
also  some  of  our  cut-worms  appear  to  have  been  introduced  from 
Europe. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  have  unwittingly  sent  to  Europe  the  grape 
Phylloxera. 


190  ENTOMOLOGY. 

crop  cultivated  which  the  infesting  insects  do  not  diminish 
by  at  least  one-tenth — an  amount  of  injury  which  would 
hardly  be  noticed.  They  often  injure  crops  to  the  extent 
of  one-fourth  or  one -half,  and  occasionally  entirely  destroy 
them,  as  during  the  ravages  of  the  wheat-midge  in  this 
State  in  1854-1857.  One  of  our  ex-Governors,  in  his  agri- 
cultural addresses,  has  frequently  urged  that  insect-depre- 
dations upon  crops  of  one-fourth  or  one-half  their  value 
should  be  regarded  as  a  direct  tax  of  twenty-five  per  cent 
or  fifty  per  cent  levied  upon  their  full  value,  and  collected, 
perhaps,  year  after  year,  without  a  show  of  resistance;  but 
which  each  farmer  could,  and  therefore  should,  resist,  and 
thereby  relieve  himself  from  at  least  a  portion  of  the  bur- 
den." 

The  following  estimates  of  the  losses  incurred  by  the 
people  of  the  United  States  will  cause  one  to  realize  how 
large  a  sum,  much  of  which  by  proper  care  and  foresight 
could  be  saved,  is  annually  wasted.  The  agricultural  prod- 
ucts of  the  United  States  are  said  to  amount  annually  to 
13,500,000,000;  of  this  amount  we  probably  annually  lose 
by  the  attacks  of  insects  not  far  from  one-twentieth,  or 
$100,000,000.  The  losses  from  the  ravages  of  the  locust 
in  the  border  or  Western  States  in  1874  were  estimated  at 
$45,000,000;  those  occasioned  by  the  chinch-bug  in  Illinois 
in  1864  amounted  to  over  $73,000,000,  and  in  Missouri  in 
1874  to  $19,000,000.  The  average  annual  loss  to  the  cotton- 
raising  States  from  the  cotton-worm  from  1860  to  1874  was 
estimated  as  about  $15,000,000. 

While  it  is  estimated  that  each  species  of  plant  on  the 
average  supports  three  or  four  species  of  insects,  very 
many  plants,  especially  those  in  general  cultivation,  afford 
subsistence  to  many  more;  for  many  species  which  now 
attack  garden  vegetables  or  fruits,  before  the  settlement  of 
this  country  lived  on  plants  of  different  species,  but  now 
concentrate  their  attention  on  one.  Thus  the  Colorado 
potato-beetle  in  its  native  state  lived  on  a  species  of  Solanum ; 
and  most  if  not  all  the  other  species  now  injurious  to  the 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  AQBICULTUBE.        191 

potato,  before  its  introduction  lived  on  other  plants.  The 
insects  of  the  apple  and  other  fruit  trees  before  those  trees 
were  introduced  into  America  lived  on  certain  forest-trees, 
such  as  the  oak,  elm,  ash,  mountain-ash,  wild  cherry,  pop- 
lar, willow,  etc. 

Our  forest-trees  are  also  peculiarly  liable  to  depredations 
from  insects,  certain  species  of  which  attack  the  roots, 
others  the  bark,  others  the  wood,  many  the  leaves,  and  a 
few  the  fruit  or  nuts.  Thus  the  oak  harbors  between  five 
or  six  hundred  species,  the  hickory  affords  maintenance  to 
one  hundred  and  forty  recorded  species,  the  birch  to  over 
one  hundred  species,  the  maple  to  eighty-five,  the  poplar 
to  seventy-two,  while  the  pine  yields  food  to  over  a  hun- 
dred different  kinds. 

We  will  now  very  briefly  notice  the  most  common  and 
formidable  pests  of  some  of  our  cultivated  plants,  referring 
the  reader  for  further  information  to  the  list  of  works  and 
reports  on  economic  entomology  at  the  end  of  this  book. 

Insects  Injurious  to  Field  and  Garden  Crops. 
Injuring  Wheat. 

The  Joint-worm  {Isosoma  hordei  Harris). — A  minute, 
footless,  yellowish- white  maggot  often  forms  blister-like 
swellings  between  the  second  and  third  joints  of  the  stalk, 
immediately  above  the  lower  joint  in  the  sheathing  base  of 
the  leaf ;  remaining  through  the  winter  in  the  stubble, 
straw,  or  harvested  grain,  and  changing  into  a  small, 
slender,  black,  four- winged  insect,  which  deposits  its  eggs 
in  the  stalks  of  young  wheat  late  in  May  and  in  June. 

This  is  one  of  the  Chalcididge,  and,  unlike  the  majority 
of  the  family,  lives  on  plants.  When  wheat  or  barley  is 
from  eight  to  ten  inches  high  its  growth  becomes  suddenly 
checked;  the  lower  leaves  turn  yellow,  and  the  stalks  be- 
come bent.  If  the  butts  of  the  straw  are  now  examined, 
they  will  be  found  to  be  irregularly  swollen  and  discolored 
between  the  second  and  third  joints,  and,  instead  of  being 


192 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


hollow,  are  rendered  solid,  hard,  and  brittle,  so  that  the 
straw  above  the  diseased  part  is  impoverished  and  seldom 
produces  any  grain. 

Remedy. — Burn  the  stubble  in  the  autumn  or  early  spring  for 
several  years  in  succession. 


Fig.  236,— The  joint-worm  fly.    a,  c,  e,  female;  b,  d,f,  male.— After  Riley. 

The  Hessian  Fly  {Cecidomyia  destructor  Say). — Two  or 
three  small,  reddish-white  maggots  embedded  in  the  crown 
of  the  roots  or  just  above  the  lower  joint  cause  the  stalks 
and  leaves  of  wheat  to  wither  and  die;  the  maggots  harden, 
turn  brown,  then  resemble  flaxseed,  and  finally  change  into 
little  black  midges  with  smoky  wings,  which  lay  from 
twenty  to  thirty  eggs  in  a  crease  in  the  leaf  of  the  young 
plant. 

There  are  two  broods  of  the  fly,  the  first  laying  their 
eggs  on  the  leaves  of  the  young  wheat  from  early  in  A])ril 
till  the  end  of  May,  the  time  varying  with  the  latitude  and 
weather;  the  second  brood  a2:)pearing  during  August  and 
the  early  jjart  of  September,  and  laying  about  thirty  eggs 
on  the  leaves  of  the  young  winter  wheat. 

Tlio  eggs  hatch  in  about  four  days  after  they  are  laid. 
Several  of  the  maggots  or  larva  make  their  way  down  to  the 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  AGRICULTURE.        193 

sheathing  base  of  tlie  leaf,  and  remain  between  the  base  of 
the  leaves  and  the  stem  near  the  roots,  causing  the  stalk  to 
swell  and  the  plant  to  turn  yellow  and  die.  By  the  end  of 
November,  or  from  thirty  to  forty  days  after  the  wheat  is 
sown,  they  assume  the  "flaxseed"  state,  and  may,  on  re- 
moving the  lower  leaves,  be  found  as  little  brown,  oval, 
cylindrical,  smooth  bodies,  a  little  smaller  than  grains  of 
rice.  They  remain  in  the  wheat  until  during  warm  weather; 
in  April  the  larva  rapidly  transforms  into  the  pupa  within 
its  flaxseed  skin,  the  fly  emerging  from  the  flaxseed  case 
about  the  end  of  April.  The  eggs  laid  by  this  first  or  spring 
brood  of  flies  soon  hatch;  the  second  brood  of  maggots  live 
but  a  few  weeks,  the  flaxseed  state  is  soon  undergone,  and 
the  autumn  or  second  brood  of  flies  appears  in  August.  (In 
some  cases  there  may  be  two  autumn  broods,  the  earlier 
August  brood  giving  rise  to  a  third  set  of  flies  in  Sep- 
tember. ) 

There  are  several  destructive  ichneumon  parasites  of  the 
Hessian  fly,  whose  combined  attacks  are  supposed  at  times 
to  destroy  about  nine-tenths  of  all  the  flies  hatched.  Of 
these,  the  most  important  is  the  Chalcid  four-winged  fly, 
Semiotellus  (Merisus)  destructor  (Fig.  237,  i,  much  en- 
larged), which  infests  the  flaxseed;  and  the  egg-parasite, 
Phitygaster  herrickii  Pack. 

Remedies. — By  sowing  a  part  of  the  wheat  early,  and,  if  affected 
by  the  fly,  ploughing  and  sowing  the  rest  after  September  20,  the 
wheat-crop  may  in  most  cases  be  saved.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  the  first  brood  should  be  thus  circumvented  or  destroyed  in 
order  that  a  second,  or  spring,  brood  may  not  appear. 

If  the  wheat  be  only  partially  affected,  it  may  be  saved  by 
fertilizers  and  careful  cultivation  ;  or  a  badly  damaged  held  of 
winter  wheat  may  thus  be  recuperated  in  the  spring. 

Pasturing  with  sheep,  and  consequent  close  cropping  of  the  win- 
ter wheat  in  November  and  early  December,  may  cause  many  of  the 
eggs,  larvae,  and  flaxseeds  to  be  destroyed;  also,  rolling  the  groimd 
may  have  nearly  the  same  effect. 

Sow  hardy  varieties.  The  Underbill  Mediterranean  wheat,  and 
especially  the  Lancaster  variety,  which  tillers  vigorou.sly,  should  be 
sown  in  preference  to  the  slighter,  less  vigorous  kinds  in  a  region 
much  infested  by  the  fly.  The  early  (August)  sown  wheat  might 
be  Diehl;  the  late  sown,  Lancaster  or  Clawson. 

Of  special  remedies,  the  use  of  lime,  soot,  or  salt  may  be  recom- 
mended, also  raking  off  the  stubble;  but  too  close  cutting  of  the 


194 


Fig.  237.— The  Hessian  fly  and  its  transformations. 
A  healthy  stalk  of  wheat  on  the  left,  the  one  on  the  right  dwarfed  and  the  lower 
leaves  beginning  to  wither  and  turn  yellow;  the  stem  swollen  at  three  places, 
near  the  ground  where  the  flaxseed  (h)  are  situated,  between  the  stem  and 
sheathing-base  of  the  leaf,  a,  egg  of  the  Hessian  fly  (greatly  enlarged,  as  are 
all  the  figures  except  e  and  /():  b,  the  larva,  enlarged,  the  line  by  the  side,  in 
tliis  and  other  figures,  showing  the  natural  length;  c.  the  flaxseed,  puparium, 
or  pupa-case;  d,  the  pupa  or  chrysalis;  e,  the  Hessian  fly,  natural  size,  laj'ing 
its  eggs  in  the  creases  of  the  leaf;  /,  female  Hessian  liy,  much  enlarged;  g, 
male  Hessian  fly,  much  enlarged;  h.  flaxseed  between  the  leaves  and  stalk; 
i,  Chalcid  parasite  of  the  Hessian  fly,  male,  enlarged.— Fig.  b  drawn  by  Mr. 
Riley;  Fig.  d  by  Jlr.  Burgess;  Figs,  o,  c,  and  i,  by  the  author;  h,  g,  f,  drawn  on 
wood  by  L.  Trouvelot.  {To/ace page  195.) 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


195 


■wheat  and  burning  the  stub- 
ble are  of  doubtful  use,  as 
this  destroys  the  useful  para- 
sites as  well  as  the  flies. 

The  Wheat-midge  {Di- 
plosis  tritici  Kirby). — 
This  species  injures  the 
head.  Several  minute 
orange-red  maggots,  an 
eighth  of  an  incli  long, 
crowding  around  the  ker- 
nels of  wheat,  cause  them 
to  shrivel  and  dry  when 
ripe.  The  maggots  de- 
scend into  the  ground  and 
spin  minute  cocoons,  from 
which  in  the  following 
June  emerge  bright 
orange  -  colored  midges. 
This  insect  is  far  less 
common  and  destructive 
than  the  Hessian  fly. 

Remedy.  —  Plough  deep 
after  harvest,  and  burn  the 
"screenings" after  threshing. 

Chinch  -  bug  {Blissus 
leucopterns  Say).  —  This 
bug,  while  young,  sucks 
the  roots  of  wheat  and 
corn,  afterwards  infesting 
in  great  numbers  the 
stalks  and  leaves,  punc- 
turing them  with  its 
beak.  It  appears  early 
in  June,  and  there  is  a 
summer  and  an  autumn 
brood,  the  adults  hiber- 
nating in  the  stubble. 


Fig.  238.— Wheat-midpe.  a,  male;  6,  fe- 
male; c,  wing, enlarged;  d,  antennal  joints 
of  male;  e.  of  female;  /,  ovipositor,  with 
its  two  sliding  tubes  and  terminal  appen- 
dages for  guidltig  the  eggs,  (j;  h,  larvae  on 
a  kernel;  i,  the  larva,  enlarged;  i',  the 
same,  natural  size:  j,  the  same  crawling, 
with  its  antennae  extended;  k,  anterior,  I, 
posterior,  end. — After  Fitch. 


196 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Remedies. — Burn  the  stubble,  old  straw,  and  corn-stalks  among 
weeds  in  fence-corners  in  the  early  spring.  Sow  small  grain  early 
in  the  spring;  fall  ploughing  and  the  use  of  the 
roller  upon  laud  that  is  loose  and  friable  are 
recommended.  Where  irrigation  is  practised, 
fields  may  be  flooded  for  several  days  in  suc- 
cession, and  thus  the  insects  driven  off  or 
drowned.  A  kerosene  emulsion,  sprayed  with 
the  force-pump  and  cyclone  nozzle,  will  de- 
stroy immense  numbers;  and  deep  furrows, 
with  a  log  drawn  through  them  to  grind  the 
soil  into  dust,  will  also  prove  useful  in  arrest- 
ing their  progress. 

Grain   Aphis  {Aphis  avenm  Fabr.). — 
Multitudes  of  dark  plant-lice,  clustering 
on  the  heads  of  wheat  in   August;  in   FiG.239.-chinch.bug. 
certain  years  blacken  the  fields  of  grain,  and  by  sucking 
the  kernels  cause  them  to  shrink  in  size  and  to  diminish  in 
weight. 

The  Northern  Army- worm  {Leucmiia  unipunda  Ha- 
worth). — This  caterpillar  periodically  ravages  wheat  and 
other  grain  fields  in  the  Middle  and  Northern  States,  march- 
ing through  them  in  great  armies.  The 
moth  appears  late  in  the  summer  or 
early  in  autumn,  when  it  hibernates, 
after  laying  its  eggs  near  the  base  of 
leayes  of  grasses;   or  farther  south  it 


Fig.  240. — Northern  army-worm,    a,  moth,  with  details. — After  Riley. 

hibernates  in  the  chrysalis  state,  laying  its  eggs  in  April 
and  May,  but  later  northward.  The  eggs  hatch,  the  young 
appearing  eight  or  ten  days  after,  and  the  worms  are  most 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  AGRICULTURE.        197 

destructive  in  a  wet  summer  succeeding  u  dry  one,  at  tlie 
time  when  the  wheat  is  in  the  milk.  The  caterpilhir  state 
lasts  a  month;  the  chrysalis  state  two  weeks,  unless  it  hiber- 
nates. 

The  caterpillar  is  an  inch  and  a  half  long;  the  head  is 
covered  by  a  network  of  confluent  spots,  and  along  the 
middle  of  the  face  run  two  lines  diverging  at  each  end.  A 
light-colored  waved  line  just  above  the  legs  is  succeeded  by  a 
dark  one,  then  a  light  one  edged  with  two  thread-lines; 
while  the  upper  part  of  the  body  is  dark,  with  an  inter- 
rupted white  thread  running  along  the  middle  of  the  back. 
The  moth  is  rusty,  grayish-brown,  sprinkled  with  black 
specks;  and  the  species  is  called  unipuncta  from  the  single 
white  discal  dot  of  the  fore  wings. 

Remedies. — The  best  preventive  remedy  is  to  burn  meadows  and 
grass-lands,  where  the  eggs  are  laid,  in  autumn.  When  the  armies 
are  in  motion  and  threaten  a  field  of  wheat,  the  latter  should  be 
protected  by  a  deep  trench  with  steep  or  undermining  sides,  in 
which  fires  are  kindled  or  kerosene  is  poured.  The  use  of  the  ditches 
may  be  supplemented  by  dusting  the  grass  or  wheat  for  a  few  feet 
on  each  side  of  the  ditch  with  Paris  green. 

The  Wheat-head  Army-worm  {Leucania  alhiUnea). — This 
caterpillar  injures  the  heads  of  wheat,  rye,  and  barley,  begin- 
ning at  the  base,  sometimes  at  the  centre  of  the  ear,  some- 
times hollowing  out  the  soft  grains,  leaving  nothing  but  the 
shell  and  the  chaff.  The  caterpillar  is  like  the  foregoing 
species,  but  is  striped  with  sulphur-yellow  and  light  and 
dark  brown  lines.  The  insect  is  common  from  Maine  to 
Kansas. 

The  Wheat  Thrips  {Tlirips  tritici  of  Dr.  Fitch).— 
This  is  an  exceedingly  minute,  active,  long,  narrow,  leap- 
ing insect  of  a  bright  yellow  or  shining  black  color,  occur- 
ring in  numbers  on  the  heads  and  stalks  in  June  and  July, 
puncturing  and  thus  exhausting  the  juices  of  the  kernels, 
and  rendering  them  dAvarfish  and  shrivelled.  Another 
kind  common  on  wheat  in  New  York,  in  June,  is  the  three- 
banded  Thrips  (Coleothrvps  trifasciata  Fitch). 

Other  wheat-insects  are  certain  species  of  Oscinis,ChloropSj 


198  FjNTOMOLOQT. 

and  Meromyza,  which  injure  tlie  stalks  and  leaves.  The 
roots  are  eaten  by  tli-^  white  grub,  wire-worms,  etc.,  while 
stored  grain  is  destroyed  by  the  caterpillar  of  the  Angoumois 
moth  {Gelechia  cerealella),  by  the  grain  weevil  {SitopMlus 
granarius),  and  by  the  grain  Sylvanus  {S.  surinamensis). 

Injuring  Corn. 

Cut-worms  {Agrotis  suffusa  D.  &  S.  and  other  species). 
— Not  corn  alone,  but  other  cereals,  the  grasses,  and  most 
garden  vegetables  are  indiscriminately  attacked  by  different 
species  of  caterpillars  of  Agrotis  and  allied  genera,  which 
are  called  cut-worms  from  their  habit  of  gnawing  or  cutting 
off  the  leaves  or  heads  of  young  succulent  plants  as  they  are 
coming  up  out  of  the  ground.  They  are  thick,  with  a  dis- 
tinct horny  scale  (prothoracic  plate  or  shield)  on  the  segment 
next  to  the  head,  and  are  usually  marked  with  shining  and 
warty,  or  smooth,  spots  of  the  same  general  color  as  the 
rest  of  the  body,  and  are  usually  longitudinally  striped. 
They  are  to  be  seen  early  in  spring  hiding  under  sticks, 
boards,  and  stones,  having  hibernated  in  this  state.     They 


Fig.  241.— Cut-worm  and  its  moth.— After  Riley. 

feed  by  night,  hiding  in  the  daytime,  and  the  chrysalids 
are  situated  under  ground.  They  transform  into  moths, 
sometimes  called  dart-moths,  which  may  be  known  by  their 
crested  thorax  and  ciliated  or  (rarely)  pectinated  antennae, 
while  the  fore  wings  are  rather  narrow,  usually  with  a  dark 
dot  near  the  m.iddle  of  the  wing,  and  just  beyond  a  reniform 
or  kidney-shaped  mark;  there  is  usually  a  basal,  median 
black  streak.  The  moths  appear  in  midsummer,  and  lay 
their  eggs  near  the  roots  of  grasses;   these  hatch  in  the 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  AQBIGULTURE.       199 

autumn,  the  worms  living  on  tlie  roots  and  sprouts  of 
herbaceous  plants,  and  on  the  approach  of  winter  descend- 
ing below  the  reach  of  frost. 

Remedies. — Before  planting,  the  seed-corn  should  be  soaked  in 
copperas-water;  while  late  in  autumn  corn-land  should  be  ploughed 
deep  so  as  to  turn  up  the  half-grown  worms,  and  expose  them  to  winter 
colds  and  insectivorous  birds.  When  the  worms  have  begun  their 
attacks,  search  should  be  made  for  them  by  digging  up  the  soil 
around  the  plant.  They  may  also  be  trapped  in  holes  made  by  a 
stake  in  corn-hills,  or  near  cabbage-plants,  etc.  According  to  Riley 
they  may  be  destroyed  b}^  the  wholesale  by  dropping  between  the 
rows  of  the  crop  to  be  protected,  at  nightfall,  balls  or  masses  of 
fresh-cut  grass,  clover,  or  turnip-leaves  which  have  been  sprinkled 
with  the  Paris-green  or  London-purple  solution. 

Wire- worms. — Eating  the  roots   of   corn,   wheat,  grass, 

etc.,  hard,  cylindrical,  reddish  worms,  tapering  alike  towards 

each  end  of  the  body,  and  changing  into  snapping  beetles. 

(See  family  Elateridce,  p.  109.) 

Remedies. — They  may  be  caught  by  placing  slices  of  potato, 
turnip,  or  apple  in  the  beds,  and  examining  the  under  sides  every 


^ 


Fig.  242.— Wire- 
worm. 


Fig.  243. — Corn  maggot,    a,  larva; 
b,  pupa-case.— After  Riley. 


The  Corn-maggot  {Anthomyia  zem  Eiley). — Gnawing  seed- 
corn  after  it  is  planted,  a  maggot  which  sometimes  abounds 
so  as  to  nearly  ruin  entire  corn-fields. 


200 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


The  Corn- weevil  {SphenopJiorus  zem  Walsh). — Puncturing 
large  holes  in  young  corn  near  the  base  of  the  stalk,  before 
it  has  spindled,  and  sometimes  destroying  whole  fields  of 
young  corn,  a  rather  large  black  weevil,  nearly  half  an  inch 
long. 

The  Spindle- worm  {Achatodes  zece  Harris). — Boring  in  the 
stalk  before  the  corn  spindles,  causing  the  leaves  to  wither, 
a  caterpillar  an  inch  long,  smooth  and  naked,  with  the  head 
and  last  segment  black.  When  the  leaves  begin  to  wither, 
cut  open  the  stalk  and  remove  the  worm. 

The  Stalk-borer  {Goriyna  nitela  Guenee). — Boring  in 
the  stalks  of  corn,  potato,  tomato,  etc. ,  a  caterpillar  of  a  pale 
livid  hue,  with  light  stripes  along  the  body;  also  sometimes 
boring  into  the  cob  of  growing  Indian  corn. 

This  worm  also  l)ores  in  dahlia  and  aster  stalks,  and  may 
be  cut  out  with  a  penknife,  and  the  split  in  the  stalk  will 
heal  by  being  closed  with  a  piece  of  thread. 

Besides  these  pests,  corn  is  often  attacked  by  the  chinch- 
bug,  and  sometimes  by  the  boll-worm,  as  well  as  the  cater- 
pillars of  the  lo  and  Arge  moths. 

Injuring  the  Cotton-plant. 

The  Cotton  Army-worm  {Aletia  argillacea  Hiibner). — 
This  caterpillar  often  feeds  in  vast  numbers  on  the  leaves  of 
the  cotton-plant.     It  has  a  looping  gait;  is  slightly  hairy, 

green,  dotted  with  black  along 
a  subdorsal  yellowish  line,  with 
black  dots  beneath;  and  changes 
to  a  pale-reddish-brown  moth. 
The  insect,  as  shown  by  Riley, 
"never  hibernates  in  either  of 
the  first  three  states  of  egg, 
larva,  or  chrysalis,  and  it  sur- 
vives the  winter  in  the  moth  or 
imago  state  only  in  the  southern 
portion  of  the  cotton  belt."'     The  moth,  he  adds,  liiber- 


Fm.   244.- 


Cotton-worm  : 
moth. 


egg    and 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO   AOBICULTUBK       201 

nates  priucipally  under  the  shelter  of  niuk  wire-grass  iu 
the  more  heavily  timbered  portions  of  the  South,  and  begins 
laying  its  eggs  (400  to  500  in  number)  on  the  ratoon  cotton 
when  this  is  only  an  inch  or  tAvo  high.  The  localities 
Avhere  it  hibernates^,  and  where  consequently  the  earliest 
worms  appear,  seem  to  be  more  common  in  the  western 
part  of  the  cotton  belt  (Texas)  than  in  the  Atlantic  cotton 
States.  It  is  inferred  that  from  this  region  the  moths  emi- 
grate east  and  north,  laying  their  eggs  later  than  the  original 
Texan  brood,  as  in  Alabama,  Georgia,  and  northward.  The 
recently  hatched  worms  of  different  sizes  were  found  late  in 
March  on  ratoon  cotton  in  southern  Georgia  and  Florida, 
and  in  late  seasons  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  middle 
of  May,  though  they  do  not  attract  the  attention  of  planters 
until  the  middle  or  last  of  June.  In  midsummer  the  period 
from  hatching  to  the  time  when  the  moth  lays  her  eggs  is 
less  than  three  weeks,  while  in  spring  and  late  autumn  twice 
that  time  may  be  required.  There  are  thus  in  the  northern 
cotton  States  at  least  three  "crops"  or  broods  of  cater- 
pillars in  a  season,  while  in  Texas  there  are  at  least  seven 
annual  generations.  The  first  generation  is  only  local,  but 
in  Texas,  says  Riley,  "The  third  generation  of  worms  may 
become,  under  favoring  conditions,  not  only  widespread  but 
disastrous,  and  the  moths  produced  from  them  so  numerous 
that  they  acquire  the  migrating  habit.  This  generation 
appears  in  south  Texas  during  the  latter  part  of  June,  and 
in  south  Alabama  and  Georgia  somewhat  later,"  and  this 
is  the  first  brood  which  attracts  general  attention.  When 
the  worms  are  very  abundant  and  the  cotton  well  "ragged," 
the  moths,  driven  by  need  of  food  for  their  progeny,  and 
with  favoring  winds,  migrate  to  distant  points,  and  thus 
spread  late  in  summer  northward,  and  they  have  been  seen 
as  far  north  as  Boston,  Buffalo,  and  Racine,  Wis.  At  the 
same  time  these  northern  specimens  are  so  fresh  that  they 
are  supposed  to  have  been  bred  on  some  iinknown  northern 
food-plant.     This  point  is  not  yet  settled. 

The  earliest  worms  are  confined  to  the  low  lands  and  to 


202  ENTOMOLOGY. 

luxuriant  plants;  severe  rains  destroy  them,  as  do  late  cold 
rains,  while  frequent  summer  rains  favor  their  development, 
and  hot,  dry  weather  is  destructive  to  them. 

The  natural  enemies  of  the  cotton- worm  are  numerous; 
birds,  toads,  lizards,  and  certain  kinds  of  ants  prey  on  them, 
besides  gi-ound-beetles,  bugs,  and  a  number  of  species  of 
ichneumons,  including  an  egg-parasite  (Trichogramma). 

Remedies. — While  many  moths  can  be  destroyed  by  lights,  the 
universal  remedies  by  which  great  numbers  of  the  worms  are  destroyed 
are  Paris  green,  petroleum  emulsions,  and  Persian  insect-powder; 
and  among  devices  for  applying  the  liquid  insecticides  the  centrifugal 
or  cyclone  spraying-nozzle  is  the  most  efficacious. 

The  dry  preparation  is  one  pound  of  the  green  to  from  20  to  35 
pounds  of  cheap  tlour,  or,  instead  of  flour,  land  plaster  (gypsum)  or 
cotton-seed  meal.  The  best  preparation  of  Paris  green  consists  of  1 
pound  to  40  gallons  of  water.  Loudon  purple  may  be  applied  dry, 
using  3  pounds  to  18  of  flour,  etc. ;  or  wet,  one  half  a  pound  to  50  or 
55  gallons  of  water. 

A  fine  spray  of  kerosene  oil  applied  to  the  leaves  will  kill  all  the 
worms  in  a  remarkably  short  time;  but  as  petroleum  in  any  form 
injures  the  plant,  the  oil  must  be  so  diluted  as  to  injure  only  the  worm 
and  not  affect  the  plant.  Prof.  Barnard  suggested  the  use  of  milk  as 
a  diluent,  and  finally  an  emulsion  was  perfected  by  Mr.  Hubbard  for 
orange  insects,  which  is  now  in  general  use.  Cotton-seed  emulsions 
are  less  efficacious  than  those  made  with  petroleum. 

Another  important  insecticide  for  field  use  against  the  cotton-worm 
is  pyrethrum  or  Persian  insect-powder,  applied  by  a  bellows,  or  in 
water  solution,  the  powder  being  simplj^  stirred  up  in  water  (200 
grains  to  2  gallons  of  water),  applied  by  means  of  a  fountain-pump 
or  an  atomizer.  The  inventions  for  applying  insecticides,  both  dry 
and  wet,  are  very  fully  described  and  illustrated  in  Riley's  report  on 
the  cotton- worm,  forming  the  fourth  report  of  the  U.  S.  Ento- 
mological Commission. 


Injuring  the  Potato. 

The  Colorado  Potato-beetle  (Leptinotarsa  lO-lineata  Say). 

— Devouring  the  leaves,  a  large,  thick-bodied,  reddish- 
orange  grub,  with  black  spots  on  the  sides,  changing  usually 
under  ground  into  a  large  hemispherical  yellow  beetle, 
about  half  an  inch  long,  with  ten  wide  black  stripes  on  the 
back;  three  broods  of  the  grub  appearing  in  one  season. 
Originally  an  inhabitant  of  Colorado,  this  destructive  beetle 
is  a  constant  plague  all  over  the  Northern  and  Middle 


INSECTS  mJUBIOUS  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


203 


States,  as   well   as  Canada,  New    Rnmswick,    and   Nova 
Scotia. 

Remedies. — The  universal  remedy  is  Paris  green,  one  part  mixed 
■with  about  twenty  parts  of  cheap  flour,  and  dusted  with  a  dredging- 
box  over  the  vines  early  in  the  morning  while  the  dew  is  on  the  ground. 
As  the  dry  powder  blows  about,  and  is  a  poison,  Paris  green  being  a 


Fig.  245.— Colorado  potato-beetle,    a,  eggs;  6,  6,  b,  larva;  c,  pupa;  d,  beetle. 

preparation  of  arsenic,  it  is  better  to  apply,  with  a  spraying-machine 
or  watering-pot,  a  liquid  preparation,  i.e.,  a  mixture  of  Paris  green 
and  water.  On  small  farms  and  in  gardens  near  the  dwelling-house 
Paris  green  should  be  used  with  caution,  as  it  has  been  known  to 
poison  cows  and  horses. 

Blistering-beetles  {Macrohasis  cinerea  Fabr.,  Epicmita 
jjensylvanica  De  Geer,  etc). — These  insects  do  more  or  less 
damage  to  potato-leaves  in  certain  years.  The  black  blister- 
ing-beetle {E.  pe}isylvanica)  is  commonest  northward;  it  is 
totally  black,  and  is  a  little  smaller  than  the  gray  species 
{M.  cinerea),  which  is  ash-colored  on  the  head,  the  pro- 
thorax,  and  under  side  of  the  body.  The  striped  blistering- 
beetle  {E.  vittata)  is  longer  and  slenderer  than  the  others 
named,  and  is  clay-yellow,  with  six  black  longitudinal 
stripes.  The  remedies  recommended  for  the  Colorado 
beetle  will  destroy  these  and  all  other  insects  feeding  on 
potato-leaYes. 


204 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


The   Flea-beetle   {Halt lea  cuctimeris    Harris). — Eating 
holes  in  the  leaves  of  this  and  other  garden  vege- 
tables, especially  tlie  cabbage,  sometimes  riddling 
them  when  yonng  and  causing  them  to  turn  rust- 
color,  minute  blackish  beetles,  which  on  being  dis- 
^F'i^a~  turbed  leap  off  like   fleas.     Watering  the  leaves 
beetle.     yf[t]]  a  solution  of  lime,  or  sprinkling  them  with 
wood-ashes,  drives  them  away. 

The  Striped  Garden-bug  {Lygus  lineolaris  Beauvois). — 
Puncturing  and  poisoning  the  leaves  of  the  potato  and  all 
sorts  of  garden  vegetables,  causing  them  to  wither  and  turn 
black,  a  medium-sized  bug  with  a  yellowish  head  and  a 
5-lined  thorax. 

Remedies. — Sprinkle  the  leaves  with  alkaline  solutions,  such  as 
strong  soapsuds,  or  decoctions  of  tobacco  and  of  walnut  leaves,  or 
dust  the  leaves  with  air-slaked  lime  or  sulphur. 


Fig.  247.— European  cabbage-butterfly.    A,  male;  B,  female;  a,  larva;  b,  pupa. 

After  Riley. 

Besides  the  foregoing  insects,  potato-plants  are  often 
attacked  by  the  great  Sphinx  or  horned  caterpillar,  the 
grubs  of  the  golden-helmet  beetle  {Cassida  aurichalcea). 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


205 


while  the  stalks  are  sometimes  tunnelled  by  the  grub  of  a 
weevil  {Baridms  trinotatus  Say),  as  well  as  the  caterpillar 
of  Gortyna  nitela. 


Injuring  the  Cabbage,  Radish,  etc. 

The  European  Cabbage-butterfly  {Pieris  rapce  Schrank). 
— Feeding  not  only  on  the  outer  leaves,  but  boring  into  the 
heads  in  all  directions,  a  green,  velvety  caterpillar  with  a 
yellowish  stripe  along  the  back  and  side,  and  turning  into 
a  wliite  butterfly  with  four  (male)  or  six  (female)  conspicu- 
ous black  spots.  There  are  two  broods  of  worms,  the  insect 
wintering  as  a  chrysalis.  It  is  held  in  check  by  a  Chalcid 
parasite  {Ffeiwnalus  puparum  Linn.). 

Remedies. — Destroy  the  butterflies  by  capturing  them  with  a  hand- 
net;  trap  the  chrysalids  by  placing  boards  slightly  raised  from  the 
ground,  under  which  the  caterpillars  may  pupate;  also  sift  over  the 
cabbage-heads  a  powder  composed  of  one  part  of  pyrethrum  diluted 
with  twenty  parts  of  flour,  or  sprinkle  a  saturated  infusion  of  pyrethrum 
on  the  plants.  Excellent  remedies  are  applications  of  hot  water,  or  a 
solution  of  one  pound  of  whale-oil  soap  dissolved  in  about  six  gallons 
of  water,  or  strong  tar -water. 

The  Cabbage  Plusia  {Plusia  hrassicce  Eiley). — In  August 
and  September,  gnawing  large,  irregular  holes  in  the  leaves; 
a  rather  large,  pale-green 
caterpillar,  marked  with 
still  paler,  more  opaque 
lines,  and  with  three 
pairs  of  abdominal  feet, 
being  a  semilooper,  and 
changing  to  a  grayish- 
brown  moth,  whose 
wings  are  adorned  with 
a  distinct    silver    mark 

of     interrogation.       "^^^^  ^,^_  ^^__c^^y,^^e-hn^_    a,  6.  nymphs;  c,  d, 

moth  lays  her  eggs  singly  <",  eggs.-After  Riiey. 

or  in  small  clusters  on  either  side  of  the  leaf,  the  .voung 
worms  feeding  first  on  the  outside  leaves,  afterwards  boring 
a  short  distance  into  the  heads.     There  are  four  broods  a 


206 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


year,   and  both  "chrysalids  and  moths  hibernate.     Apply 
remedies  like  those  suggested  for  the  cabbage-butterfly. 

The  Harlequin  Cabbage-bug  {Murgantia  histrmiica 
Hahn). — Destroying,  in  the  Southern  States,  by  its  punc- 
tures, cabbages,  turnips,  radishes,  mustard,  etc. ;  a  black 
and  orange-colored  bug.  The  very  young,  as  well  as  the 
old,  combine  to  destroy  the  plant,  which  wilts  as  if  poisoned. 

Besides  those  already  mentioned,  cabbages  are  more  or 
less  injured  by  the  web-moth  {Plidella  xylostella  Linn.), 
the  zebra  caterpillar  {Mamestra  picta  Harris),  the  cab- 
bage Aphis,  the  cabbage-weevil  {Otiorhynchus  picipes 
Fabr.),  etc.     All  can  best  be  destroyed  by  the  use  of  py- 

rethrum. 

The  Radish-fly  {Antliomyia 
radicum  B  o  u  c  h  e).  —  T  h  e 
chief  pest  of  radishes  is  a 
small  white  maggot  which  at- 
tacks young  plants  raised  in 
old  soil.  It  changes  to  a  pupa 
within  a  barrel-shaped  pupa- 
case,    from     which     emerges 

Fig.   249.— Radish-fl5'.    a,    larva;    b,  c,  n      rj  ■      ^^  i         -,      , 

pupa-case,  natural  size  and  enlarged,  a     small     fly    Similar     to,     but 
-After  Curtis.  ^^^^^^     j^^jf    ^^    |  ^j^^ 


house-fly. 


as  large  as. 
The  best  preventives  are  early  sowing  in  a  light 
new  soil,  and  the  annual  ro- 
tation of  crops;  also  the  appli- 
cation of  hot  water,  salt,  and 
lime. 

The  Pea-weevil  (Bnichns 
pisi  Linn. ).  — The  only  serious 
pest  of  peas  is  the  weevil, 
which  spends  its  whole  life  in 
the  pea,  except  when  the 
plant  is  in  floAver. 

Remedies. — As  a  preventive  against  wormy  seed-peas,  they  should 
be  kept  sealed  up  in  tin  cans  over  one  year  before  planting;  or  soak 
the  peas  in  boiling  water  for  a  few  minutes  before  planting.     Worm- 


FiG.  250.— Pea-weevil,  natural  size  and 
enlarged;  6,  pea  containing  a  weevil. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


207 


eaten  peas  may  be  detected  by  placing  the  whole  lot  in  water, 
when  the  infested  ones  will  float  on  the  surface.  The  weevils  in  peas 
may  be  killed  by  submitting  the  infested  peas  to  the  fumes  of  bisul- 
phide of  carbon  in  a  closed  vessel. 

The  Bean-weevil  {BruclmsfahcB  Riley). -^This  is  a  smaller 
weevil  than  that  of  the  pea,  and  injures  beans  in  the  same 
manner,  except  that  the  beans  are  tenanted  by  several 
weevils;  it  is,  however,  a  more  formidable  pest  than  that  of 
the  pea. 

The  Squash-borer  {Melittia  cucurbitcB  Harris). — Squash- 
vines  are  often  killed  by  a  borer  in  the  stalk,  a  short,  thick 
caterpillar,  whitish,  with  a*dark  head  and  horny  patch  just 
behind  it.  It  changes  to  a 
beautiful,  narrow-winged 
orange-colored  moth  spot- 
ted with  black.  The  borer 
lives  in  the  vine  until  the 
end  of  September,  and  pu- 
pates either  in  the  vine  or 
in  the  ground ;  hence  if 
all  the  vines  are  collected 
and  burned  in  the  autumn,  there  will  be  less  borers  the 
following  season.  Vines  planted  late  are  less  injured  than 
early  ones. 

The  Striped  Squash-beetle  {Diairotica  vittata  Fabr.).  — 


Fig.  S51. 


-Squash-borer  (a) 
Natural  size. 


and  moth 


Fig.  252.— Squash-beetle,    o,  grub;  6,  pupa. 

As  soon  as  squash-,  cucumber-,  and  melon-vines  are  up,  the 
young  leaves  are  eaten  by  .a  small  yellow-striped  beetle, 
whose  larva  is  a  long  slender  grub,  which  bores  in  the  roots 
in  June  and  July.  The  eggs  are  deposited  on  the  root,  at 
or  just  below  the  surface  of  the  soil ;  the  larva  becomes  fully 


208  ENTOMOLOGY. 

grown  in  about  a  month  after  the  egg  is  laid;  it  remains  in 
the  pupa  state  about  two  weeks,  and  the  beetle  probably 
lives  several  days  before  ovipositing,  so  that  one  generation 
is  in  existence  about  two  months,  and  there  are  two  or  three 
generations  in  a  summer.  The  beetle  must  hibernate,  as  it 
appears  very  early  in  the  spring. 

Remedies.— Sifting  the  leaves  with  powdered  o\'ster-shell  ]ime  or 
gypsum,  hellebore  or  pyrethnim,  is  worth  trying  as  a  remedy,  wliile 
covering  the  young  vines  with  cotton  or  a  high  frame  covered  with 
fine  muslin  is  the  usual  preventive. 

The  Squash-bug  {Anasa  tristis  De  Geer). — Numbers  of 
this  great  black  bug  are  to  be  seen  clustering 
about  squash-vines,  sucking  the  sap  with 
their  stout  beaks.  It  is  a  large  blackish- 
brown  bug,  dirty  yellowish  beneath.  To- 
wards the  last  of  June  the  female  lays  her 
eggs  on  the  leaves,  and  the  young  may  soon 
be  seen  sucking  the  sap  in  the  leaves.  Suc- 
FiG.  253.-Squash-  cessivc  broods  appear  during  the  summer.    It 

bug.     Natural  '^  >■  *= 

size.  can  be  controlled  by  hand-picking. 

Another  species  sometimes  injurious  to  squash-vines  is 
the  squash  "lady-bird"  {Epilachna  borealis  Thunberg), 
whose  larva  is  a  yellowish  grub  with  long  branched  spines, 
arranged  in  rows  of  six  on  each  segment,  except  the  first 
thoracic,  which  has  only  four.  The  beetle  is  like  a  large 
Ooccinella,  and  is  yellowish,  with  seven  large  black  spots 
on  each  wing-cover.  The  pickle-worm  {Phacellura  niti- 
dalis  Cramer)  bores  cylindrical  holes  in  cucumbers  and 
melons  as  well  as  squashes.  It  is  a  pale  greeuish-yellow 
caterpillar,  with  a  pale  reddish  head.  It  spins  a  slight 
white  cocoon,  from  which  the  moth  issues  eight  or  ten  days 
afterwards. 

Injuring  the  Hop- vine. 

The  Hop  Aphis. — This  plant-louse  is  a  great  pest  of  the 
hop,  as  it  clusters  in  immense  numbers  on  the  branches 
and  leaves,  and  is  very  difficult  to  extirpate.     Prof,  Riley 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  AGRICULTURE. 


209 


has  discovered  that,  like  the  European  individuals,  it  lays  its 

eggs  at  the  approach  of  cold  weather  on  plum-trees  near  by. 

The  Hop-worm  {Hypena  hurnuli  Harris). — In  June,  and 


Fig.  254. — Hop-worm,  pupa,  and  moth;  all  natural  size. 

again   in  July  and    August,   hop-leaves   are   devoured  by 

active,  slender,  grass-green  caterpillars,  with  but  four  pairs 

of  abdominal  legs. 

Remedies. — Hand-picking  and  vigorously  shaking  the  vines  twice 
a  day,  as  well  as  spraying  the  vines  with  whale-oil  soap,  are  advisable. 


Injuring  the  Grape-vine. 
The   Phylloxera  {Phylloxera  vastatrix  Planchon).- 


-By 


Fig.  255.— The  Phylloxera,  wingless  leaf-form,  a,  under,  6,  upper,  side  of  newly- 
hatched  larva;  c,  egrg;  d,  section  of  the  leaf-gall  containing  the  insects;  e, 
swelling  of  tendril;  /,  side,  g,  upper,  h,  under,  view  of  the  mother  gall-louse; 
I,  antenna;  j,  two- jointed  tarsus.— Afier  Riley. 

far  the  most  destructive  insect  of  the  vine  is  this  Aphid. 
It  exists  in  two  forms,  one  raising  irregular  galls  on  the 


210 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


leaves  and  the  other  forming  small  swellings  on  the  root- 
lets.    The  root-form  is  both  wingless  and  winged,  the  latter 


Fig.  256.— The  Phylloxera,  root-form:  o,  healthy  root:  b,  one  in  which  the  lice  are 
working,  their  punctures  causing  the  swelling;s;  c,  a  root  deserted  by  them,  the 
rootlets  beginning  to  decay;  d.  d.  d,  d,  lice  of  natural  size  on  the  larger  roots: 
e,  pupa  of  the  female,  3.— After  Riley. 

very  rare;  the  leaf- form  is  said  to  be  always  Avingless.  The 
chief  injury  is  done  to  the  roots,  which  die  under  the  at- 
tacks of  this  minute,  insidious  foe. 

All  direct  applications  of  chemicals,  and  the  removal  and 
burning  of  the  bark  of  the  vines,  usually  result  in  failure  to 
kill  the  few  winter  eggs  to  be  found;  Eiley  maintaining 
that  the  normal  mode  of  hibernation  of  the  species  is  as  a 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  AGRICULTURE.        211 

young  larva  upon  tlie  roots.     It  lias  been  discovered  that 

the  insect  can  continue  propagating  under  ground  for  at 

least  four  years  without  the  laying  of  fertilized  eggs. 

REMEDrES. — In  France  and  Southern  Europe  preventive  remedies, 
such  as  the  submergence  of  the  vineyards,  and  especially  the  importa- 
tion and  use  of  American  stocks,  have  been  the  chief  means  of  success 
in  dealing  with  this  pest.  The  season,  however,  says  Riley,  in  which 
insecticides  (especially  sulpho-carbonates)  applied  to  the  roots  will  do 
most  good  is  in  the  interval  between  the  hatching  of  the  fertilized 
winter-egg  and  the  appearance  of  the  winged  females,  i.e.,  during 
May  and  June. 

Other  insects  occasionally  injuring  the  vine  are  the  larva 
of  the  grape  plume-moth  (Pterophorus),  which,  as  the  leaves 
and  flower-buds  expand,  eats  them,  in  certain  years  mate- 
rially lessening  the  crop.  Various  other  caterpillars,  as  the 
"vine-dresser"  {Everyx  myron),  which  cuts  oft'  the  leaves 
and  sometimes  the  half-grown  clusters  of  grapes  (as  does 
also  the  tree-cricket),  also  certain  leaf -beetles,  do  more  or 
less  harm,  Avhile  the  fruit  is  at  times  infested  by  a  leaf-roller 
{Lohesia  hotrana),  and  the  seeds  are  sometimes  tenanted  by 
the  little  white  maggot  of  a  chalcid  {Isosoma  vitis),  which 
causes  the  fruit  to  shrivel,  without  maturing. 

Injuring  Fruit-trees. 

Of  insects  injuring  fruits,  Mr.  J.  A.  Lintner  estimates 
that  there  are  in  the  United  States  at  least  1000  species;  of 
these  210  are  known  to  live  at  the  expense  of  the  apple-tree. 
We  can  only  call  attention  to  some  of  the  most  pernicious 
pests,  referring  the  reader  for  further  information  to  Mr. 
W.  Saunder's  excellent  book,  "Insects  Injurious  to 
Fruits." 

The  Apple-tree  Borer  {Saperda  Candida  Fabr.). — This 
beetle  (Fig.  102)  flies  about  the  orchard  in  May  and  June 
in  Missouri  and  Illinois,  but  in  July  in  New  England, 
and  the  female  lays  its  eggs  in  gashes  in  the  bark.  The 
larva  or  grub  upon  hatching  bores  upwards  into  the  wood, 
where  it  lives  within  a  few  days  of  three  years.  Enlarging 
its  burrow,  it  transforms  in  a  cell  lined  with  chips,  situated 


Fig.  257.— The  Vine-dresser,  with  the  chrysalis  in  its  cocoon;  and  the  moth. 
After  Riley. 

(To  face  page  213.) 


mSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  AGRICULTURE.         213 

eight  to  ten  inches  from  its  birtli-place.     It  is  notorious 
that  this  borer  will  kill  both  old  and  young  living  trees. 

Remedies. — In  late  summer  aud  autumn  the  bark  should  be  care- 
fully examined  for  the  gashes  made  by  the  beetle  in  laying  its  eggs, 
and  the  small  grubs  cut  out  of  the  bark  or  sap-wood.  Young  trees 
should  also  be  scraped  and  soaped,  and  the  trunk  at  base  be  sur- 
rounded by  tarred  paper  to  prevent  the  female  beetle  laying  her 


The  Coddling-moth  {Carpocapsa  pomonella  Linn.). — Be- 
sides the  canker-worm  and  tent-caterpillar,  which  are  locally- 
destructive,  the  universal  pest  of  the  apple-orchard  through- 
out the  United  States,  from  Maine  to  California,  is  this  in- 
sect. In  the  Northern  States  the  moth  flies  in  May,  laying 
its  eggs  in  the  calyx  after  the  blossoms  fall,  and  in  a  few 


Fig.  258.— Coddling-moth.  a,  worm-eaten  apple;  6,  point  at  which  the  egg  Is 
laid,  and  at  which  the  young  worm  entered;  d,  pupa;  e,  full-grown  worm;  h, 
its  head;  /,  g,  moth;  i,  cocoon.— After  Riley. 

days  the  larva  hatches,  burrowing  into  the  core,  when  in 
three  weeks  it  becomes  of  ftiU  size,  being  a  pale  whitish 
caterpillar  nearly  an  inch  in  length.  As  the  result  of  its 
work,  the  apple  prematurely  falls  to  the  ground,  when  the 
worm  deserts  it.     It  then  usually  creeps  up  the  trunk  of 


214 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


the  tree,  spins  a  tlii  k  cocoon  in  crevices  in  the  hark,  and 
in  a  few  days  a  second  brood  of  the  moths  appears;  but  most 
of  the  caterpillars  hibernate  in  their  cocoons. 

Remedies. — The  obvious  preventive  remedy  is  to  gather  the  wind- 
falls each  day  as  soon  as  they  fall  and  feed  them  to  the  hogs,  while 
fowl  should  be  allowed  to  run  in  the  orchard.  The  best  direct 
remedy  is  to  bind  bands  of  hay  or  straw  around  the  tree  from  July 
to  the  last  of  September,  replacing  them  every  few  days  by  fresh 
ones,  the  old  ones  being  burnt,  so  as  to  kill  the  caterpillars  or  chrysa- 
lids  liiding  beneath  the  bands. 

Prof.  Forbes,  as  the  result  of  numerous  experiments,  finds  that  by 
once  or  twice  spraying  with  Paris  green,  in  early  spring,  before  the 
young  apples  had  drooped  upon  their  stems,  there  was  a  saving  of 
about  75  per  cent  of  the  apples  exposed  to  injury  by  the  coddling- 
moth.  It  .should  be  added  that  spraying  with  this  poison  after  the 
apples  have  begun  to  liaug  downward,  is  unquestionably  dangerous. 

Another  general  pest,  often  destroying  young  orchards  or 
separate  trees,  is  the  apple  bark -louse,  while  stored  apples 
are  destroyed  by  the  maggots  of  flies  (p.  126). 

The   Plum-weevil  {Co7iotrnchelus   nenuphar  Herbst). — 

This  weevil  has  well-nigh 
exterminated  the  plum  in 
the  Eastern  States,  and  its 
attacks  far  outweigh  in  im- 
portance those  of  all  other 
plum  insects.  It  resembles 
a  dried  bud;  when  the  fruit 
is  set  it  stings  the  green 
plums,  making  with  its  beak 
a  curved  incision  in  Avhich  a 
single  Qgg  is  deposited.    The 

pupa;  c."b"Sged;  d'rna^tiirai  Presence  of  the  grub  causes 
size,  puncturing  a  plum.  the  f  ruit  to  prematurely  drop 

with  the  larva  Avithin.  The  latter,  maturing,  leaves  the 
plum,  burrows  into  the  ground,  and  during  the  last  of 
summer  becomes  a  beetle. 

Remedies. — As  a  remedy  the  trees  should  be  frequently  shaken 
or  jarred,  and  the  weevils,  falling  into  a  sheet  placed  beneath  the 
tree,  should  be  collected  and  burnt.  Forbes  finds  that  about  half 
the  damage  done  by  weevils  may  be  prevented  by  spraying  the  trees 
with  Paris  green  early  in  the  season,  while  the  fruit  is  small. 


INSKCTH  INJURIOUS  TO  AQJilCULTURE.        215 


The  Peach-tree  Borer  {Sannina  exiliosa  S:iy). — This 
borer  outranks  all  other  insects  as  a  destroyer  of  peach- 
trees.  It  lays  its  eggs  in  the  bark  near  the  ground,  and 
the  worm  on  hatching  attacks  the  living  trees,  boring  into 
the  bark  and  sap-wood  of  the  roots,  or  trunk,  causing  the 


Fig.  260.— Peach-tree  borer,    a,  male;  6,  female. 

gum  to  exude,  so  that  its  presence  may  be  easily  noticed. 
When  the  caterpillar  is  one  year  old  it  makes  a  cocoon 
under  the  bark  of  the  trunk  or  at  the  larger  roots  of  the 
tree.  To  prevent  its  attacks  heap  the  earth  high  around 
the  trunk,  or  wrap  tarred  paper  around  the  lower  part  of 


Fig.  861.— 1,  eggs'of  the  currant  saw  fly  deposited  along  the  midribs;  2  and  3, 
the  holes  bored  by  the  young  worms. 

the  trunk;  wlien  the  worm  is  fairly  at  work,  cut  it  out,  ap- 
plying wax  or  clay  to  the  wound. 


Fia.  262.— Currant-worm,    a,  enlarged. 


Fig.  863,— Saw-fly  or  adult  currant-worm,    a,  male;  b,  female. 

(To  face  page  217.) 


INSECTS  BENEFICIAL  TO  AGRICULTURE.      217 

The  Currant-worm  {Nematus  ventricosKS  King). — This 
saw-fly  larva  or  false  caterpillar  is  far  more  destructive  than 
all  other  insects  combined  to  currant  and  gooseberry  shrubs, 
since  the  voracious  larva?  appear  in  successive  broods. 
The  female,  without  having  paired  with  the  male,  deposits 
her  whitish  cylindrical  eggs  along  the  under  side  of  the  mid- 
ribs. In  four  days  the  worms  hatch,  and  eight  days  after 
become  fully  fed,  burrow  into  the  ground,  remaining  in 
the  pupa  state  about  a  fortnight. 

Remedies. — Powdered  hellebore  or  pyrellirum  mixed  with  four  or 
five  times  its  bulk  of  cheap  flour  will,  if  coustautly  applied,  save  the 
crop. 


Insects  Beneficial  to  Agriculture. 

In  a  great  variety  of  ways  certain  insects  are  helpful  to 
man,  and  are  especially  efficacious  either  in  ensuring  liis 
crops  or  in  destroying  those  insects  which  would  otherwise 
devour  them. 

Fertilizers  of  Fruit-trees. — A  very  important  part  in  the 
production  of  abundant  crops  of  fruit  is  played  by  bees  and 
other  honey-  or  nectar-gatherers,  and  pollen-feeding  insects. 
It  is  now  generally  acknowledged  that  bees,  especially  the 
honey-bee,  act  as  "  marriage-priests"  in  the  fertilization  of 
flowers,  conveying  pollen  from  flower  to  flower,  and  thus 
ensuring  the  *' setting"  of  the  fruit.  Orchards  in  which 
bee-hives  are  placed  bear  heavier  crops  than  those  not  thus 
favored.  Bees  are  in  Europe  profitably  introduced  into 
peach-houses  in  order  to  effect  the  pollination  of  the  flowers. 
Many  wasps,  as  well  as  butterflies  and  moths,  species  of 
pollen-eating  beetles,  Thrips,  and  other  insects,  by  uncon- 
sciously bearing  pollen  from  distant  flowers,  prevent  too 
close  in-and-in  breeding.  Indeed,  as  Goethe  said,  flowers 
and  insects  were  made  for  each  other.  *     Many  plants  would 

*  "  For  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  if,  on  the  one  hand,  flowers 
are  in  many  cases  necessary  to  the  existence  of  insects;  insects,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  still  more  indispensable  to  the  very  existence  of 


218  ENTOMOLOOY. 

not  bear  seeds  did  not  insects  fertilize  them.  Insects  are 
in  the  first  place  attracted  to  flowers  by  their  sweet  scent 
and  bright  colors,  and  it  is  claimed  that  the  lines  and 
circles  on  the  corolla  of  certain  flowers  guide  them  to  the 
nectary;  though  we  do  not  see  why  the  scent  is  not  in  the 
main  sufficient  for  this  purpose.  According  to  Sir  John 
Lubbock,  "  The  visits  of  insects  are  of  great  importance  to 
plants  in  transferring  the  pollen  from  the  stamens  to  the 
pistil.  In  many  plants  the  stamens  and  pistil  are  situated 
in  separate  flowers:  and  even  in  those  cases  where  they  are 
contained  in  the  same  flower,  self-fertilization  is  often  ren- 
dered difficult  or  impossible;  sometimes  by  the  relative 
position  of  the  stamens  and  pistil,  sometimes  by  their  not 
coming  to  maturity  at  the  same  time.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances the  transference  of  the  pollen  from  the  stamens 
to  the  pistil  is  effected  in  various  ways.  In  some  species 
the  pollen  is  carried  by  the  action  of  the  wind;  in  some  few 
cases,  by  birds;  but  in  the  majority,  this  important  object 
is  secured  by  the  visits  of  insects,  and  the  whole  organiza- 
tion of  such  flowers  is  adapted  to  this  purpose."     (1.  c.  2.) 

Hermann  Miiller  believed  that  the  peculiarities  which  dis- 
tinguish bees  and  most  Lepidoptera,  i.e.,  their  mouth-parts 
and,  in  the  case  of  bees,  their  legs,  have  been  gradually  pro- 
duced in  past  ages  by  their  visits  to  flowers. 

Insects  also  are  useful  as  pruners,  checking  the  too-rapid 
growth  of  leaves  and  shoots,  the  result  being  the  formation 
of  a  greater  amount  of  seeds  or  fruit.  Unfortunately  this 
process  in  most  cases  exceeds  healthy  limits,  and  the  plant, 
being  almost  wholly  defoliated,  is  weakened  or  killed. 

Parasitic  Insects  {Ichneumons  and  TachincB). — While 
insectivorous  birds  accomplish  much  towards  reducing  the 

flowers:— that,  if  insects  have  been  in  many  cases  modified  and 
adapted  with  a  view  to  obtain  honey  and  pollen  from  flowers, 
flowers  in  their  turn  owe  their  scent  and  color,  their  honey,  and  even 
their  distinctive  forms,  to  the  action  of  insects.  There  has  thus  been 
an  interaction  of  insects  upon  flowers,  and  of  flowers  upon  insects, 
resulting  in  the  gradual  modification  of  both."  (Lubbock's  "  British 
Wild  Flowers  considered  in  relation  to  Insects.") 


INSECTS  BENEFICIAL   TO  AGRICULTURE.       219 

numbers  of  injurious  insects,  they  often  as  likely  as  not  eat 
the  beneficial  as  well  as  the  destructive  kinds.  Without  doubt 
the  leading  factor  in  preventing  the  undue  increase  of  noxious 
insects  are  the  parasitic  kinds  belonging  to  the  hymenop- 
terous  families  Ichneumonida?,  Braconidse,  Chalcididje  and 
Prototrupida?,  and  the  dipterous  family  Tachinida?. 

An  ichneumon-fly  lays  its  eggs  either  on  the  outside  of 
the  caterpillar  or  bores  under  its  skin,  inserting  an  egg 
within  the  body.  Mr.  Poulton  has  carefully  watched  a 
Paniscus  ovipositing  on  a  caterpillar.  It  laid  fourteen 
eggs,  firmly  attaching  them  to  its  skin,  most  of  them  in 
the  sutures  between  the  segments,  and  on  the  sides  of  the 
body.  An  excess  of  eggs  are  laid,  since  some  do  not 
develop;  for  if  all  gave  out  larvae,  none  could  arrive  at 
maturity  within  the  body  of  the  future  host.  The  ichneu- 
mon lays  a  smaller  number  of  eggs  on  small  caterpillars 
than  on  large  ones,  and  yet  in  all  cases  lays  more  than  can 
develop. 

The  larva  of  the  ichneumon  upon  hatching  works  its  way 
into  the  interior  of  its  host.  Here  it  does  not  injure  the 
muscles,  nerves,  or  the  vital  parts  of  the  caterpillar,  but 
apparently  simply  lies  motionless  in  the  body-cavity,  absorb- 
ing the  blood  of  its  host. 

Many  ichneumons  are  polyphagous,  i.e.,  live  on  insects 
of  widely  different  species  belonging  to  different  orders; 
others  confine  their  attacks  to  a  siugle  species.  Certain 
chalcids  are  secondary  parasites,  living  in  the  larvae  of  those 
parasitic  in  caterpillars,  etc.  Most  ichneumons  have  but  a 
single  generation;  a  few  are  double-brooded.  In  Germany 
Ratzeburg  observed  a  brood  of  Microgaster  globatvs  early  in 
May,  and  another  early  in  August.  Though  there  may  be 
two  broods  of  the  hosts,  there  is  as  a  rule  but  a  single  brood 
of  ichneumons.  Ratzeburg  indeed  found  that  certain  ich- 
neumons parasitic  on  saw-fly  larvae  imitated  the  habit  of  the 
latter  of  living  more  than  a  year,  i.e.,  they  did  not  develop 
until  the  greater  number  of  saw-flies  had  issued  from  the 
belated  cocoons.     On  the  other  hand,  Pteromalus  p7ij)a7'um 


220  ENTOMOLOGY. 

undergoes  in  Europe  an  extraordinarily  rapid  growth;  it 
stings  early  in  June  the  chrysalids  of  Vanessa  jjolychloros, 
and  by  the  middle  of  July  the  adults  appear.  Teleas  ovu- 
lor  11711  requires  only  from  four  to  six  weeks  to  develop;  it, 
however,  flies  somewhat  later,  so  as  to  find  the  young  silk 
caterpillars  on  which  to  lay  its  eggs. 

Ichneumons  rarely  develop  within  adult  insects,  but  cer- 
tain Braconids  infest  Coccinellae.  The  small  Chalcids 
(Pteromali)  mostly  inhabit  the  tender  pupee  of  bark-boring 
beetles  and  leaf-rollers.  Among  the  smaller  ichneumons 
several  females  usually  inhabit  a  single  host,  while  from  600 
to  700  individuals  of  Pteronialus  ptipariim  may  inhabit  a 
single  chrysalid. 

Most  ichneumons  develop  within  their  hosts,  but  many 
species  of  Chalcids  live  on  the  outside  and  suck  the  blood 
of  their  victims.  Certain  ichneumon  larvae  living  within 
their  host  undergo  the  most  remarkable  change  as  respects 
their  mouth-parts.  In  the  larva  of  Microgaster  glohatus 
(according  to  Judeich  and  Nitsche)  there  are  in  the  early 
stages  only  the  wart-like  rudimentary  sucking  mouth-parts, 
but  after  the  last  moult  they  acquire  ordinary  biting  mandi- 
bles, with  which  they  can  gnaw  through  the  skin  of  their 
host. 

The  young  of  the  Tachina-flies  are  true  footless  maggots, 
and  take  their  liquid  food  by  suction  through  the  mouth, 
the  mouth-parts  being  very  rudimentary.  Tacliina  (Seno- 
metopia)  militaris  has  been  observed  by  Eiley  to  lay  from 
one  to  six  eggs  on  the  skin  of  the  army-worm,  "fastening 
them  by  an  insoluble  cement  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
two  or  three  first  rings  of  the  body. "  The  young  maggots 
on  hatching  penetrate  within  the  body  of  the  caterpillar, 
and,  lying  among  the  internal  organs,  absorb  the  blood  of 
their  unwilling  host,  causing  it  to  finally  weaken  and  die. 
Usually  but  a  single  maggot  lives  in  its  host.  Many  grass- 
hoppers as  well  as  caterpillars  are  destroyed  by  them. 

Insectivorous  Insects. — There  are  very  many  carnivorous 
kinds  which  devour  insects  entire.     Such  are  the  ground- 


REMEDIES  AGAINST  THE  ATTACKS  OF  INSECTS.  221 

beetles,  water-beetles,  the  larvae  of  Teuebrionids  and  of 
lady-beetles  (Coccinella),  and  those  of  the  lace-wiiiged  flies 
(Chrysopa)  which  prey  on  Aphides,  though  the  maggots  of 
the  Syrphus  flies  are  more  abundant  and  efficacious  as 
Aphis- destroyers. 

Preventive  and  Direct  Remedies  Against  the  Attacks 
OF  Insects. 

In  applying  any  remedies  against  noxious  insects,  it  is  of 
prime  importance  to  become  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the 
habits  and  transformations  of  tlie  pests  with  which  we  have 
to  contend.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  insects  during 
their  transformations  lead  different  lives,  and  that  practi- 
cally a  caterpillar  is  a  different  animal  from  the  chrysalis  or 
the  butterfly,  with  entirely  different  habits  and  surround- 
ings; and  so  on  throughout  the  other  orders  of  insects. 

Under  the  head  of  general  or  preventive  remedies  may  be 
enumerated  : 

High  culture,  with  the  use  of  plenty  of  manures  and 
fertilizers. 

Rotation  of  crops,  and  early  or  late  sowing. 

Eaising  crops  to  last  for  two  years,  such  as  peas  and 
beans,  to  guard  against  weevils. 

The  breeding  of  insect-parasites. 

Burning  grass  and  stubble  for  certain  insects  injuring 
field-crops. 

Eemoval  of  dead  trees  or  stumps  near  orchards  or  in 
forests. 

Among  di]-ect  remedies,  besides  hand-picking,  is  the  use 
of  the  following  insecticides: 

Paris  green  and  London  purple. 

Kerosene  emulsions. 

Pyrethrum  or  Persian  insect-powder. 

Bisulphide  of  carbon  for  the  grape-root  Phylloxera. 

Carbolic-acid  soap;  whale-oil  soap. 

Ammonia  or  chloroform  for  insect-bites. 


222  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Sulphur  tor  mites;  borax  for  cockroaches. 
Ointments  and  carbolic  soap  for  lice. 
Salt,  hot  water,  ashes,  dust,  soot. 

Various  devices  and  machines  for  applying  powders  or 
liquid  preparations. 

Paris  Green  and  London  Purple. — These  arsenical  preparations  may 
be  used  dry  when  mixeti  with  cheap  flour  in  the  proportion  of  1  to 
2o  parts,  or  wet  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  i  to  1  pound  of  the  pow- 
der with  40  gallons  of  water.  The  London  purple  is  the  weaker  of 
the  two  powders;  but  is  often  preferred  to  Paris  green  from  its 
cheapness,  and  because  it  is  more  easily  diffused,  and  can  be  seen 
more  distinctly  on  the  leaves,  though  its  effects  may  not  be  observed 
until  two  or  three  days  after  being  applied. 

Petroleum  Emulsions. — Dilute  1  quart  of  kerosene  oil  and  12  fluid 
ounces  of  condensed  milk  with  36  ounces  of  water.  This  is  emuLsi- 
onized  by  violent  churning,  and  before  being  used  may  be  diluted 
from  12  to  20  times  with  water.  Equal  parts  of  kerosene  and  con- 
densed milk  may  also  be  thoroughly  mixed  or  churned  together,  and 
then  diluted  ad  libitum  with  water. 

Pyrethrum  or  Persian  Insect-powder. — Thispowder  is  deadly  to  most 
insects,  but  harmless  to  plants  and  human  beings,  cattle,  or  horses. 
It  may  be  applied  (1)  as  a  dry  powder;  (2)  as  a  fume,  being  thrown  on 
the  stove  or  on  a  red-hot  shovel  or  piece  of  sheet-iron;  (3)  as  an 
alcoholic  extract,  diluted;  (4)  by  simply  stirring  the  powder  in  water; 
and  (5)  as  a  tea  or  decoction.  As  a  powder  it  may  be  mixed  with 
from  10  to  20  times  its  bulk  of  wood-ashes  or  flour,  but  before  use 
should  remain  for  twenty-four  hours  with  the  diluent  in  an  air-tight 
vessel.  (Riley.)  One  experimenter  dilutes  the  dry  powder  with  only 
four  or  Ave  times  its  bulk  of  flour  in  applying  to  cabbages  to  kill 
cabbage-worms 

Spraying-machines. — Numerous  inventions  for  applying  these 
preparations  on  an  extensive  scale  are  described  in  the  reports  and 
bulletins  of  the  Entomologist  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at 
Washington;  among  the  most  elflcacious  being  spray  nozzles*  of 
different  kinds,  being  modifications  of  the  old-fashioned  sprinklers 

*The  eddy  or  cyclone  nozzle  consists  of  a  small  circular  chamber 
with  two  flat  sides,  one  of  them  screwed  on  so  as  to  be  readily  re- 
moved. Its  principal  feature  consists  in  the  inlet  through  which  the 
liquid  is  forced,  being  bored  tangentially  through  its  wall,  so  as  to 
cause  a  rapid  whirling  or  centrifugal  motion  of  the  liquid,  which 
issues  in  a  funnel-shaped  spray  through  a  central  outlet  in  the  adjust- 
able cap.  The  breadth  or  height,  fineness  or  coarseness  of  the  spray 
depends  on  certain  details  in  the  proportions  of  the  parts,  and 
especially  of  the  central  outlet.  The  nozzle  was  invented  by  Riley 
and  Barnard.  In  applying  the  fluid  to  trees,  an  ordinary  barrel  is 
used  as  a  reservoir,  in  which  is  inserted  a  force-pump  wilh  automatic 
stirrer.  A  long  rubber  hose  extends  from  the  pump,  and  is  attached 
to  the  spraying  apparatus.     (Riley.) 


REMEDIES  AGAINST  THE  ATTACKS  OF  INSECTS.  223 

and  sifters;  machines  for  blowing  dry  poisons,  squirters  of  fluid 
poisons  and  emulsions,  the  best  of  which  are  fountain-pumps.  For 
spraying  orchards,  groves,  and  forest-trees,  force-  or  fountain-pumps 
with  a  long  hose,  the  end  of  which  passes  through  a  bamboo  pole 
ending  in  a  cyclone  or  eddy-chamber  nozzle,  are  very  efficient. 

Bemedies  against  Bots. — Those  of  cattle  may  be  pressed  with  the 
thumb  out  of  the  tumors  on  the  back  after  slightly  enlarging  the 
abscess  with  a  knife  or  scalpel;  otherwise,  if  the  hot  is  burst  within 
the  tumor,  inflammation  will  result. 

Sheep-bots  may  be  removed  from  the  nostrils  before  they  have 
penetrated  far  by  inserting  a  feather  anointed  with  oil  of  turpentine, 
and  gently  moving  it  about.  Dilute  carbolic  acid  injected  with  a 
syringe  is  also  beneficial.  As  a  preventive,  anointing  the  nose  with 
coal-tar  has  been  recommended,  and  salt-troughs  are  smeared  with 
this  substance  to  accomplish  this  anointing  more  easily. 

As  a  preventive  against  horse-bots,  frequent  currying  and  clipping 
the  hair  removes  the  eggs.  This  need  be  done  only  during  the  time 
when  the  flies  are  about.    (Rilej'.) 

Miscellaneous  Remedies — The  clothes-moth  is  exterminated  from 
furniture  by  soaking  chairs,  sofas,  etc.,  in  tanks  of  kerosene  and  then 
recovering  them;  carpet  moths  and  beetles  are  very  difficult  to  over- 
come; but  they  may  be  kept  under  to  a  great  extent  by  ironing  the 
edges,  applying  Persian  insect-powder  in  closely  shut  rooms,  or 
saturating  the  edges  next  to  the  wall  with  benzine,  care  being  taken 
not  to  set  the  room  on  fire.  A  room  or  bedstead  may,  by  the  use  of 
kerosene  or  of  corrosive  sublimate,  be  disinfected  of  bed-bugs. 

Mites  are  generally  destroyed  by  sulphur;  the  itch-mite  by  sulpiiur- 
ointment;  lice  on  animals  by  carbolic  soap,  or  kerosene-oil  emulsions, 
or  any  oil  or  grease;  lice  on  chickens  may  be  diminished  by  white- 
washing the  coop,  fumigating  it  with  sulphur  or  washing  with 
kerosene;  cockroaches  succumb  to  equal  parts  of  powdered  borax 
and  sugar  placed  in  their  way.  The  bites  of  mosquitoes,  stings  of 
bugs,  bees,  etc.,  may  be  treated  locally  with  ammonia  or  chloroform, 
bee-stings  with  wet  mud  applied  to  the  wound;  while  the  bites  of 
centipedes  and  the  stings  of  scorpions  may  be  treated  with  diffusible 
stimulants,  such  as  ammonia  taken  in  repeated  doses  internally,  be- 
sides brandy  or  whiskey,  to  support  the  system  until  the  patient 
recovers  from  the  shock. 


Chrysophanus  thoe,  right  side  as  seen  beneath. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

DIRECTIONS    FOR     COLLECTING,     PRESERVING,    AND 
REARING  INSECTS. 

Where  to  Look  for  Insects. — In  collecting,  whenever  the 
two  sexes  are  found  united  they  should  be  pinned  upon  the 
same  pin,  the  male  being  placed  above.  When  we  take 
one  sex  alone,  we  may  feel  sure  that  the  other  is  somewhere 
in  the  vicinity;  perhaps  while  one  is  flying  about  so  as  to 
be  easily  captured,  the  other  is  hidden  under  some  leaf,  or 
resting  on  the  trunk  of  some  tree  near  by,  which  must  be 
examined  and  every  bush  in  the  vicinity  vigorously  beaten 
by  the  net.  Many  species  rare  in  most  places  have  a 
mefrojjolis  where  they  occur  in  great  abundance.  During 
seasons  when  his  favorites  are  especially  abundant  the 
collector  should  lay  up  a  store  against  years  of  scarcity. 

At  no  time  of  the  year  need  the  entomologist  rest  from 
his  labors.  In  the  winter,  under  the  bark  of  trees  and  in 
moss  he  can  find  many  species,  or  detect  their  eggs  on  trees, 
etc.,  which  he  can  mark  for  observation  in  the  spring  when 
they  hatch  out. 

He  need  not  relax  his  endeavors  day  or  night.  Mothing 
is  night  employment.  Skunks  and  toads  entomologize  at 
night.  Early  in  the  morning,  at  sunrise,  when  the  dew  is 
still  on  the  leaves,  insects  are  sluggish  and  easily  taken 
with  the  hand;  species  fly  then  that  hide  themselves  by  day, 
while  at  night  many  caterpillars  leave  their  retreats  to  come 
out  and  feed,  when  the  lantern  can  be  used  with  success  in 
searching  for  them. 

Wollaston  (Entomologist's  Annual,  18G5)  states  that 
sandy  districts,  especially  towards  the  coast,  are  at  all  times 
preferable  to  clayey  ones,  but  the  intermediate  soils,  such 
as  the  loamy  soil  of  swamps  and  marshes,  are  more  produc- 
tive.    Near  the  sea,  insects  occur  most  abundantly  beneath 


COLLECTING  AND  REARING  INSECTS.  225 

pebbles  and  other  objects  in  grassy  spots,  or  else  at  the  roots 
of  plants.  In  many  places,  especially  in  alpine  tracts,  as 
we  have  found  on  the  summit  of  Mt.  Washington  and  in 
Labrador,  one  has  to  lie  down  and  look  carefully  among  the 
short  herbage  and  in  the  moss  for  Coleoptera. 

The  most  advantageous  places  for  collecting  are  gardens 
and  farms,  the  borders  of  woods,  and  the  banks  of  streams 
and  ponds.  The  deep,  dense  forests,  and  open,  treeless 
tracts  are  less  prolific  in  insect  life.  In  winter  and  early 
spring  the  moss  on  the  trunks  of  trees,  when  carefully 
shaken  over  a  newspaper  or  white  cloth,  reveals  many 
beetles  and  Hymenoptera.  In  the  late  summer  and 
autumn,  toadstools  and  various  fungi  and  rotten  fruits  at- 
tract many  insects;  and  in  early  spring,  when  the  sap  is 
running,  we  have  taken  rare  insects  from  the  stumps  of 
freshly  cut  hard- wood  trees.  Wollaston  says:  "Dead  ani- 
mals, partially  dried  bones,  as  well  as  the  skins  of  moles 
and  other  vermin  wliich  are  ordinarily  hung  up  in  fields, 
are  magnificent  traps  for  Coleoptera;  and  if  any  of  these 
be  placed  around  orchards  and  inclosures  near  at  home,  and 
be  examined  every  morning,  various  species  of  Nitiduke, 
SiJphidcB,  and  other  insects  of  similar  habits,  are  certain  to 
be  enticed  and  captured. 

"  Planks  and  chippings  of  wood  may  be  likewise  employed 
as  successful  agents  in  alluring  a  vast  number  of  species 
which  might  otherwise  escape  our  notice;  and  if  these  be 
laid  down  in  grassy  places,  and  carefully  inverted  every  now 
and  then  with  as  little  violence  as  possible,  many  insects 
will  be  found  adhering  beneath  them,  especially  after  dewy 
nights  and  in  showery  weather.  Nor  must  we  omit  to  urge 
the  importance  of  examining  the  under  sides  of  stones  in 
the  vicinity  of  ants'  nests,  in  which  position,  during  the 
spring  and  summer  months,  many  of  the  rarest  of  our  native 
Coleoptera  may  be  occasionally  procured."  Excrementi- 
tious  matter  always  contains  many  interesting  forms  in 
various  stages  of  growth. 

The  trunks  of  fallen  and  decaying  trees  offer  a  rich 


226  ENTOMOLOGY. 

harvest  for  many  wood-boring  larvae,  especially  the  Longi- 
corn  beetles;  and  weevils  can  be  found  in  the  spring,  in  all 
stages.  Numerous  carnivorous  coleoi^terous  and  dipterous 
larvae  dwell  within  them,  and  other  larvae  which  eat  the 
dust  made  by  the  borers.  The  inside  of  pithy  plants  like 
the  elder,  raspberry,  blackberry,  and  syringa,  is  inhabited 
by  many  of  the  wild  bees,  Osmia,  Ceratina,  and  the  wood- 
wasps,  Crabro,  Stigmus,  etc.,  the  liabits  of  which,  with 
those  of  their  Chalcid  and  Ichneumon  parasites,  offer  end- 
less amusement  and  material  for  study. 

Ponds  and  streams  shelter  a  vast  throng  of  insects,  and 
should  be  diligently  dredged  with  the  water-net,  and  stones 
and  pebbles  should  be  overturned  for  aquatic  beetles,  He- 
miptera,  and  Dipterous  larvse. 

The  various  sorts  of  galls  should  be  collected  in  spring 
and  autumn  and  placed  in  vials  or  boxes,  where  their  in- 
habitants may  be  reared,  and  the 
rafters  of  out-houses,  stone-walls,  etc., 
should  be  carefully  searched  for  the 
nests  of  mud-wasps. 

Collecting  Apparatus. — First  in  im- 
portance is  the  net  (Fig.  264).  This 
is  made  by  attaching  a  ring  of  brass 
wire  to  a  handle  made  to  slide  on  a 
pole  six  feet  long.  The  net  may  be  a 
foot  in  diameter,  and  the  bag  itself 
Fig.  264. -Collecting-net.  made  of  musHu  or  mosquito-netting 
(the  finer,  lighter,  and  more  durable  the  better),  and  should 
be  about  twenty  inches  deep.  It  should  be  sewed  to  a  nar- 
row border  of  cloth  placed  around  the  wire.  A  light  net 
like  this  can  be  rapidly  turned  upon  the  insect  with  one 
hand.  The  insect  is  captured  by  a  dexterous  twist  which 
also  throws  the  bottom  over  the  mouth  of  the  net. 

The  insect  should  be  temporarily  held  between  the  thumb 
and  forefinger  of  the  hand  at  liberty,  and  then  pinned 
through  the  thorax  while  in  the  net.  The  net  we  use  has 
a  folding  frame  of  stout  brass  wire,  one  side  soldered  to  a 


COLLECTING  AND  HEARING  INSECTS.  227 

stout  brass  tube,  the  other  held  iu  place  by  a  screw  in  the 
end  of  the  tube;  it  is  simple  and  useful  in  travelling.  The 
pin  can  be  drawn  through  the  meshes  upon  opening  the 
net.  The  beating-net  should  be  made  much  stouter,  with 
a  shallower  cloth  bag  and  attached  to  a  shorter  stick.*  It 
is  used  for  beating  trees,  bushes,  and  herbage  for  beetles 
and  Hemiptera  and  various  larvae.  Its  thorough  use  we 
would  recommend  in  the  low  vegeta- 
tion on  mountains  and  in  meadows. 
The  water-net  may  be  either  round 
or  of  the  shajie  indicated  in  Fig.  265. 
The  ring  should  be  made  of  brass, 
and  the  shallow  net  of  grass-cloth  or  fig.  265.— water-net. 
coarse  millinet.  It  is  used  for  collecting  aquatic  insects. 
Mr.  Schmelter  recommends  for  collecting  small  water- 
beetles,  etc.,  a  net  made  of  ordinary  muslin,  with  a  bottom 
of  the  finest  brass  wire-cloth,  the  meshes  of  which  do  not 
exceed  ^  mm. ;  the  Avater  will  readily  pass  through  this  net, 
while  the  smallest  insects  will  be  retained.  Herr  Isen- 
schmidt  suggests  in  ''  Entomologische  Nachrichten"  a  net 
constructed  entirely  of  woven  wire,  but  this  would  be 
clumsy  to  carry  about,  and  Schmelter 's  net  is  preferable. 

Various  sorts  of  forceps  are  indispensable  for  handling 
insects.  Small,  delicate,  narrow-bladed  forceps,  with  fine 
sharp  points,  such  as  are  used  by  jewellers,  and  made  either 
of  steel  or  brass,  are  excellent  for  handling  minute  speci- 
mens. For  larger  ones,  long,  curved  forcej)s  are  very  con- 
venient.     For    pinning    insects    into    boxes  the  forceps 

*  Schmelter  uses  one  made  of  a  strong  wire  ring  of  from  one  to  one 
and  a  half  feet  in  diameter,  with  a  bag  of  muslin  attached  of  at  least 
the  same  depth,  tirmly  fixed  to  the  entl  of  a  stick  about  two  to  three 
feet  long.  In  another  form  which  is  much  used  "the  ring  consists  of 
different  parts,  two  or  three,  which  are  connected  by  means  of  joints, 
and  the  ring  can  be  folded  when  not  iu  use.  By  means  of  a  screw 
the  ends  of  this  ring  are  firmly  fixed  into  a  tul)e,  which  again  fits 
tightly  on  the  end  of  an  ordinary  walking  cane.  In  any  fishing-tackle 
store,  rings  of  this  or  of  a  similar  construction  are  for  sale."  (Bull. 
Brooklyn  Ent.  Soc,  i.  26.)  Dr.  Bailey  describes  and  figures  a  net 
with  a  folding  frame  in  Can.  Ent. ,  x.  63. 


228  ENTOMOLOGY. 

should  be  stout,  the  blades  blunt  and  curved  at  the  end 
so  that  the  insects  can  be  pinned  without  slanting  the 
forceps  much.  The  ends  need  to  be  broad  and  finely  in- 
dented by  lines  so  as  to  hold  the  pin  firmly.  With  a 
little  practice  the  forceps  soon  take  the  place  of  the  fingers. 
Some  persons  use  the  ordinary  form  of  pliers  with  curved 
handles,  but  they  should  be  long  and  slender.  A  spring 
set  in  to  separate  the  handles  when  not  grasped  by  the  hand 
is  a  great  convenience. 

Various  pill-boxes,  vials,  and  bottles  must  always  be 
taken,  some  containing  alcohol  or  whiskey.  Many  col- 
lectors use  a  wide-mouthed  bottle,  containing  a  sponge 
saturated  with  ether,  chloroform,  or  benzine,  or  bruised 
laurel-leaves,  the  latter  being  pounded  with  a  hammer  and 
then  cut  with  scissors  into  small  pieces,  which  give  out  ex- 
halations of  prussic  acid  strong  enough  to  kill  most  small 
insects. 

Besides  these  the  collector  needs  a  small  box  lined  with 
corn-pith  or  cork,  and  small  enough  to  slip  into  the  coat- 
pocket;  or  a  larger  box  carried  by  a  strap.  Most  moths 
and  small  flies  can  be  pinned  alive  without  being  pinched 
(which  injures  their  shape  and  rubs  off  the  scales  and  hairs), 
and  then  killed  by  pouring  a  little  benzine  into  the  bottom 
of  the  box. 

Killing  Insects  for  the  Cabinet. — Care  in  killing  affects 
very  sensibly  the  looks  of  the  cabinet.  If  hastily  killed  and 
distorted  by  being  pinched,  with  the  scales  rubbed  off  and 
otherwise  mangled,  the  value  of  such  a  specimen  is  dimin- 
ished either  for  study  or  the  neat  appearance  of  the  col- 
lection. 

Besides  the  vapor  of  ether,  chloroform,  and  benzine,  the 
fumes  of  sulphur  readily  kill  insects.  Large  specimens 
may  be  killed  by  inserting  a  pin  dipped  in  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  oxalic  acid.  An  excellent  collecting-bottle  is  made 
by  putting  into  a  wide-mouthed  bottle  two  or  three  small 
pieces  of  cyanide  of  potassium,  which  may  be  covered  with 
cotton,  about  half-filling  the  bottle.     The  cotton  may  be 


PRESERVING     INSECTS.  22^ 

covered  with  pajier  lightly  attached  to  the  glass  and  pierced 
with  pin-holes;  this  keeps  the  insects  from  being  lost  in  the 
bottle.  This  is  excellent  for  small  flies  and  moths,  as  the 
mouth  of  the  bottle  can  be  jjlaced  over  the  insect  while  at 
rest;  the  insect  flies  up  into  the  bottle  and  is  immediately 
suffocated.  A  bottle  well  prepared  will,  according  to 
Laboulbene,  last  several  months,  even  a  year,  and  is  vastly 
superior  to  the  old  means  of  using  ether  or  chloroform.  He 
states:  *'The  inconvenience  of  taking  small  insects  from  a 
net  is  well  known,  as  the  most  valuable  ones  usually 
escape;  but  by  placing  the  end  of  the  net,  filled  with  in- 
sects, in  a  wide-mouthed  bottle,  and  putting  in  the  cork 
for  a  few  minutes,  they  will  be  suffocated."  For  Dip- 
tera,  Loew  recommends  moistening  the  bottom  of  the 
collecting  box  with  creosote.  Mr.  J.  A.  Jackson  recom- 
mends the  use  of  a  glass  fruit-jar,  one  in  which  the  cover 
screws  down  upon  a  rubber  cushion  or  packing.  Put  a 
bunch  of  cotton  in  the  bottom,  retaining  it  in  its  place  by 
pressing  down  upon  it  a  circular  piece  of  jDasteboard,  made 
to  fit  tightly  in  the  jar,  except  that  two  or  three  notches 
should  be  left  in  the  edge  for  the  chloroform  to  run  through 
to  the  cotton.  The  bottle  is  now  ready  for  use;  an  insect 
dropped  into  it  will  die  almost  instantly.  (Can.  Ent.  xix. 
119.)  A  morphine  bottle  prepared  in  the  same  way  will  do 
for  micros.  Ether  may  be  used  in  the  same  way,  as  we  are 
accustomed  to  do,  but  chloroform  is  generally  preferred. 
Prof.  E.  \y.  Claypole  (Canadian  Entomologist,  xix.  136) 
kills  Lepidoptera,  etc.,  with  benzine  or  gasoline,  the  latter 
only  costing  fourteen  cents  a  gallon.  With  most  moths  it 
causes  instant  death,  and  can  be  poured  on  the  bodies  of 
large  silk-worm  moths,  such  as  Cecropia,  without  injuring 
the  scales  or  hairs.  He  carries  it  in  an  ounce  phial  having 
a  cork  through  which  passes  a  finely-pointed  glass  tube,  the 
outer  end  of  which  is  capped  with  a  small  India-rubber 
capsule;  the  whole  may  be  bought  at  a  drug-store  for  a  few 
cents,  under  the  name  of  a  dropping-tube.  Thus  the  tube 
is  always  full  of  liquid  ready  to  be  squirted  out  on  an  in- 


230  ENTOMOLOGY. 

sect  in  the  net,  or  even  at  rest  in  the  open  air,  and  the 
specimen  is  at  once  ready  to  be  pinned  and  spread.  A 
cliioroform  bottle  with  a  brush  securely  inserted  in  the 
cork  is  often  convenient  for  small  moths. 

Pinning  Insects. — The  pin  should  be  inserted  through 
the  thorax  of  most  insects.  The  Coleoptera,  however, 
should  be  pinned  through  the  right  wing-cover  (Fig.  266); 
many  Hemiptera  are  best  pinned  through  the  scutellum. 
The  specimens  should  all  be  pinned  at  an  equal  height,  so 
that  about  one-fourth  of  the  pin  should  project  above  the  in- 
sect. 

The  best  pins  are  those  made  in  Germany,  and  are  adver- 
tised  for  sale  in  American  entomological  journals.     For 
very  minute  insects  very  small  pins  are  made.     They  may 
be  used  to  impale  minute  insects  upon, 
and  then  stuck  through  a  bit  of  cork,  or 
pith,  through  which  a  large,  long  pin  may 
be  thrust.     Then  the  specimen  is  kept  out 
of  the  reach  of  devouring  insects.     Still 
smaller  pins  are  made  by  cutting  off  bits 
of  very  fine  silvered  wire  of  the  right 
length,  which  may  be  thrust  by  the  for- 
pfnninga beetle!      ccps  iuto  a  piccc  of  pith,  after  the  insects 
have  been  impaled  upon  them. 

Small  insects,  especially  beetles,  may  be  mounted  on 
cards  or  pieces  of  mica  through  which  the  pin  may  be 
thrust.  The  French  use  small  oblong  bits  of  mica,  with 
the  posterior  half  covered  with  green  paper  on  which  the 
number  may  be  placed.  The  insects  may  be  gummed  on 
the  clear  part,  the  two  sexes  together.  The  under  side 
can  be  seen  through  the  thin  mica. 

Others  prefer  triangular  pieces  of  card,  across  the  end  of 
which  the  insect  may  be  gummed,  so  that  nearly  the  whole 
under  side  is  visible. 

Mr.  Wollaston  advocates  gumming  small  Coleoptera  upon 
cards.  Instead  of  cutting  the  pieces  of  card  first,  he  gums 
them  promiscuously  upon  a  sheet  of  card-board.    "  Having 


PRESERVINO  INSECTS.  231 

gummed  thickly  a  space  on  yonr  card -board  equal  to,  at 
least,  the  entire  specimen  when  expanded,  place  the  beetle 
upon  it,  drag  out  the  limbs  with  a  pin,  and,  leaving  it  to  dry, 
go  on  with  the  next  one  that  presents  itself.  As  the  card 
has  to  be  cut  afterwards  around  your  insect  (so  as  to  suit 
it),  there  is  no  advantage  in  gumming  it  precisely  straight 
tipon  your  frame, — though  it  is  true  that  a  certain  amount 
of  care  in  this  respect  lessens  your  after-labor  of  cutting  ofE 
very  materially.  When  your  frame  has  been  filled,  and  you 
are  desirous  of  separating  the  species,  cut  out  the  insects 
with  finely-pointed  scissors." 

For  mending  broken  insects,  i.  e. ,  gumming  on  legs  and 
antennae  which  have  fallen  off,  inspissated  ox-gall,  softened 
with  a  little  water,  is  the  best  gum. 

For  gumming  insects  upon  cards,  Mr.  Wollaston  recom- 
mends a  gum  ''  composed  of  three  parts  of  tragacanth  to 
one  of  Arabic,  both  in  powder;  to  be  mixed  in  water  con- 
taining a  grain  of  corrosive  sublimate,  without  which  it 
will  not  keep,  until  of  a  consistency  just  thick  enough  to 
run.  As  the  gum  is  of  an  extremely  absorbent  nature, 
nearly  a  fortnight  is  required  before  it  can  be  properly 
made.  The  best  plan  is  to  keep  adding  a  little  water,  and 
stirring  it  every  few  days,  until  it  is  of  the  proper  con- 
sistency. It  is  advisable  to  dissolve  the  grain  of  corrosive 
sublimate  in  the  water  which  is  poured  ^r^/  upon  the  gum. 

Preservative  Fluids. — The  best  for  common  use  is  alco- 
hol, at  first  diluted  with  as  much  water;  or  weak  whiskey, 
as  alcohol  of  full  strength  is  too  strong  for  caterpillars, 
etc.,  since  it  shrivels  them  up.  The  spirits  should  after- 
wards be  changed  for  alcohol  of  full  strength  for  permanent 
preservation.  Glycerine  is  excellent  for  preserving  the 
colors  of  caterpillars,  though  the  internal  parts  decay  some- 
what, and  the  specimen  is  apt  to  fall  to  pieces  on  being 
roughly  handled. 

Laboulbene  recommends,  for  the  preservation  of  insects 
in  a  fresh  state,  plunging  them  in  a  preservative  fluid  con- 
sisting of  alcohol  with  an  excess  of  arsenic  acid  in  frag- 


232  ENTOMOLOGY, 

ments,  or  the  common  white  arsenic  of  commerce.  A  pint 
and  a  half  of  alcohol  will  take  about  fourteen  grains  (troy) 
of  arsenic.  The  living  insect,  put  into  this  jDreparation, 
absorbs  about  j^Vo  of  i^^  own  weight.  When  soaked  in 
this  liquor  and  dried,  it  will  be  safe  from  the  ravages  of 
moths,  Anthrenus  or  Dermestes.  This  liquid  will  not 
change  the  colors  of  blue,  green,  or  red  beetles  if  dried  after 
soaking  from  twelve  to  twenty- four  hours.  Hemiptera  and 
Orthoptera  can  be  treated  in  the  same  way. 

A  stay  of  a  month  in  this  arseniated  alcohol  mineralizes 
the  insect,  so  that  it  appears  very  hard,  and,  after  drying, 
becomes  glazed  with  a  white  deposit  which  can,  however, 
be  washed  off  with  alcohol.  In  this  state  the  speci- 
mens become  too  hard  for  dissection  and  study,  but 
will  do  for  cabinet  specimens  designed  for  permanent 
exhibition. 

Another  preparation  recommended  by  Laboulbene  is 
alcohol  containing  a  variable  quantity  of  corrosive  subli- 
mate, but  the  latter  has  to  be  weighed,  as  the  alcohol  evap- 
orates easily,  the  liquor  becoming  stronger  as  it  gets  older. 
The  strongest  solution  is  one  part  of  corrosive  sublimate  to 
one  hundred  of  alcohol;  the  weakest  and  best  is  one-tenth  of 
a  part  of  corrosive  sublimate  to  one  hundred  parts  of  alco- 
hol. Insects  need  not  remain  in  this  solution  more  than 
two  hours  before  drying.  Both  of  these  preparations  are 
very  poisonous  and  should  be  handled  with  care.  The  last- 
named  solution  preserves  specimens  from  mould,  which  will 
attack  pinned  insects  during  damp  summers. 

A  very  strong  brine  will  preserve  insects  until  a  better 
liquor  can  be  procured.  Professor  A.  E.  Verrill  recom- 
mends two  simple  and  cheap  solutions  for  preserving, 
among  other  specimens,  the  larvae  of  insects  "  with  their 
natural  color  and  form  remarkably  perfect."  The  first 
consists  of  two  and  a  half  pounds  of  common  salt  and  four 
ounces  of  nitre  dissolved  in  a  gallon  of  water  and  filtered. 
►Specimens  should  be  jDrepared  for  permanent  preservation 
ill  this  solution  by  being  previously  immersed  in  a  solution 


PEESERVtNQ  INSWTS.  ^3S 

consisting  of  a  quart  of  the  first  solution  and  two  ounces  of 

arseniate  of  potash  and  a  gallon  of  water. 

M.  H.  Trois  *  gives  the  following  formula  for  preserving 

caterpillars. 

Common  salt, •    gr*  235 

Alum,        gr.    55 

Corrosive  sublimate,     ....    centigr.  18 
Boiling  water, litres  5 

When  the  liquid  is  cold  add  50  grains  of  carbolic  acid. 
Let  the  liquid  stand  five  or  six  days,  and  then  filter.  It  is 
claimed  that  by  means  of  this  fluid  the  colors  of  cater- 
pillars can  be  preserved  perfectly,  even  when  exposed  to  a 
strong  light. 

The  nests,  cocoons,  and  chrysalides  of  insects  may  be 
preserved  from  injury  from  other  insects  by  being  soaked 
in  the  arseniated  alcohol,  or  dipped  into  benzine,  or  a  solu- 
tion of  carbolic  acid  or  creosote. 

Dr.  J.  L.  LeConte  has  published  in  the  "  American 
Naturalist,"  iii.  p.  307,  some  new  directions  for  the  pres- 
ervation of  insects  which  will  apply  to  beetles  as  well  as  other 
insects.  "  Surgical  art  has  given  to  us  an  instrument  by 
which  a  poisonous  liquid  can  be  rapidly  and  most  effectively 
applied  to  the  entire  surface  of  large  numbers  of  specimens 
as  they  stand  in  the  cabinet  boxes,  without  the  trouble  of 
moving  them.     I  refer  to  the  'atomizer.^ 

"■  Opinions  may  vary  as  to  the  nature  of  the  liquid  poi- 
son to  be  used,  but  after  several  trials  I  have  found  the 
following  formula  to  be  quite  satisfactory;  it  produces  no 
efflerescence,  even  on  the  most  highly  polished  species, 
while  the  odor  is  quite  strong,  and  persistent  enough  to 
destroy  any  larvae  or  eggs  that  may  be  already  in  the  box  : — 
saturated  alcoholic  solution  of  arsenious  acid,  eight  fluid 
ounces;  strychnine,  twelve  grains;  crystallized  carbolic 
acid,  one  drachm;  mineral  naphtha  (or  heavy  benzine)  and 

*  A  litre  is  33  81  fluid  ounces,  or  a  little  less  than  an  English  quart; 
a  gramme  is  15.432  grains. 


234  ENTOMOLOGY. 

strong  alcohol,  enough  to  make  one  quart.  I  have  not 
stated  the  quantity  of  naphtha,  since  there  are  some  vari- 
eties of  light  petroleum  in  commerce  which  dissolve  in  alco- 
hol only  to  a  slight  extent.  These  should  not  be  used. 
The  heavier  oils  which  mix  indefinitely  with  alcohol  are  the 
proper  ones,  and  for  the  two  pints  of  mixture  ten  to  twelve 
fluid  ounces  of  the  naphtha  will  be  sufficient.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  test  the  naphtha  on  a  piece  of  paper.  If  it 
leaves  a  greasy  stain  which  does  not  disappear  after  a  few 
hours,  it  is  not  suitable  for  this  purpose. 

"The  best  form  of  atomizer  is  the  long,  plated,  reversi- 
ble tube;  it  should  be  worked  with  a  gum-elastic  pipe  hav- 
ing two  bulbs,  to  secure  uniformity  in  the  current.  The 
atomizing  glass  tubes  and  the  bottle,  which  usually  accom- 
pany the  apparatus,  are  unnecessary;  a  common  narrow- 
necked  two-ounce  bottle  will  serve  perfectly  to  hold  the 
fluid." 

Preparing  Insects  for  the  Cabinet. — Dried  insects  may  be 
moistened  by  laying  them  for  twelve  or  twenty-four  hours 
in  a  box  containing  a  layer  of  wet  sand,  covered  with  one 
thickness  of  soft  jjaper.  Their  wings  can  then  be  easily 
spread.  Setting-boards  for  spreading  the  wings  of  insects 
may  be  made  by  sawing  deep  grooves  in  a  thick  board,  and 
placing  a  strip  of  pith  or  cork  at  the  bottom.  The  groove 
may  be  deep  enough  to  allow  a  quarter  of  the  length  of  the 
pin  to  project  above  the  insect.  The  setting-board  usually 
consists  of  thin  parallel  strips  of  board,  leaving  a  groove 
between  them  wide  enough  to  receive  the  body  of  the  in- 
sect, at  the  bottom  of  which  a  strip  of  cork  or  pith  should 
be  glued.  The  ends  of  the  strips  should  be  nailed  on  to  a 
stouter  strip  of  wood,  raising  the  surface  of  the  setting- 
board  an  inch  and  a  half,  so  that  the  pins  can  stick  through 
without  touching.  Several  setting-boards  can  be  made  to 
form  shelves  in  a  frame  covered  with  wire  gauze,  so  that 
the  specimens  may  be  preserved  from  dust  and  destructive 
insects,  while  the  air  may  at  the  same  time  have  constant 
access  to  them.     The  surface  of  the  board  should  incline 


PRESERVING  INSECTS. 


235 


Fig.  287.— Setting-board. 


a  little  towards  the  groove  for  the  reception  of  the  insect, 
as  the  wings  often  gather  a  little  moisture,  relax  and  fall 
down  after  the  insect  is  dried,  "For  the  proper  setting  of 
insects  with  broad  and  flattened  wings,  such  as  butterflies 
and  moths,  a  spreading  board  or  stretcher  is  necessary. 
One  that  is  simple  and  answers  every  purpose  is  shown  at 
Fig.  267.  It  may  be  made  of  two  pieces  of  thin  white-wood 
or  pine  board,  fastened  to- 
gether by  braces,  especially 
at  the  ends,  and  left  wide 
enough  apart  to  admit  the 
bodies  of  the  insects  to  be 
spread:  strips  of  cork  or 
pith,  in  which  to  fasten  the 
pins,  may  then  be  tacked 
or  glued  below  so  as  to  cover 
the  intervening  space.  The 
braces  must  be  deep  enough 
to  prevent  the  pins  from  touching  anything  on  which  the 
stretcher  may  be  laid;  and,  by  attaching  a  ring  or  loop  to 
one  of  them,  the  stretcher  may  be  hung  against  a  wall,  out 
of  the  way.  For  ordinary-sized  specimens  I  use  boards  2 
feet  long,  3  inches  wide,  and  ^  inch  thick,  with  three  braces 
(one  in  the  middle  and  one  at  each  end)  1|  inches  deep  at 
the  ends,  but  narrowing  from  each  end  to  1\  inches  at  the 
middle.  This  slight  rising  from  the  middle  is  to  counter- 
act the  tendency  of  the  wings,  however  well  dried,  to  drop 
a  little  after  the  insect  is  placed  in  the  cabinet.  The  wings 
are  held  in  position  by  means  of  strips  of  paper  (Fig.  267) 
until  dry."  (Eiley.)  Others  use  strips  of  stiff,  smooth 
cloth. 

Moths  of  medium  size  should  remain  two  or  three  days 
on  the  setting-board,  while  the  larger  thick-bodied  sphinges 
and  Bombycidae  require  a  week  to  dry.  The  wings  can  be 
arranged  by  means  of  a  needle  stuck  into  a  handle  of 
wood.  They  should  be  set  horizontally,  and  the  front 
margin   of  the   fore  wings   drawn  a  little  forward   of  a 


236 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


line  perpendicular  to  the  body,  so  as  to  free  the  inner 
margin  of  the  hind  wings  from  the  body,  that  their  form 

may  be  distinctly  seen. 
When  thus  arranged,  they 
can  be  confined  by  fine 
threads  drawn  over  the 
wings,  by  pieces  of  card 
pinned  to  the  board  as 
indicated  in  Fig.  268,  or, 
as   we  prefer,    by    square 

Fig.  268.-Mode  of  setting  with  card-braces  pieces   of   glaSS   laid    upon 
the  wings  of  a  butterfly  or  moth.  them. 

After  the  insects  have  been  thoroughly  dried  they  should 
not  be  placed  in  the  cabinet  until  after  having  been  in 
quarantine  to  see  that  no  eggs  of  Dermestes  or  Anthrenus, 
etc.,  have  been  deposited  on  them. 

For  preserving  dried  insects  in  the  cabinet  Laboulbene 
recommends  placing  a  rare  insect  (if  a  beetle  or  any  other 
hard  insect)  in  water  for  an  hour  until  the  tissues  are  soft- 
ened. If  soiled,  an  insect  can  be  cleansed  under  water  with 
a  fine  hair-pencil,  then  submit  it  to  a  bath  of  arseniated 
alcohol  with  corrosive  sublimate.  If  the  insect  becomes 
prune-colored,  it  should  be  washed  in  pure  alcohol  several 


Fig.  269.— Pfm«s/Mr.     a  larva. 

times.  This  method  will  do  for  the  rarest  insects;  the 
more  common  ones  can  be  softened  on  wet  sand,  and  then 
the  immersion  in  the  arseniated  alcohol  suffices.     After  an 


PRESERVING  INSECTS.  237 

immersion  of  from  a  quarter  of  an  hour  to  an  hour^  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  insect^  the  pin  is  not  affected  by  the 
corrosive  sublimate,  but  it  is  better  to  unpin  the  insect 
previous  to  immersion,  and  then  pin  it  when  almost  dry. 

For  cleaning  insects  ether  or  benzine  is  excellent,  applied 
with  a  hair-pencil;  though  care  should  be  taken  in  using 
these  substances,  which  are  very  inflammable. 

After  the  specimens  are  placed  in  the  cabinet,  they 
should  be  further  protected  from  destructive  insects  by 
placing  in  the  drawers  or  boxes  pieces  of  camphor  wrapped 
in  paper  perforated  by  pin-holes,  or  bottles  containing 
sponges  saturated  with  benzine  or  oil  of  sassafras.  The 
collection  should  be  carefully  examined  every  month;  the 
presence  of  insects  can  be  detected  by  the  dust  beneath 
them.  Where  a  collection  is  much  infested  with  destruc- 
tive insects,*  benzine  should  be  poured  into  the  bottom  of 
the  box  or  drawer,  when  the  fumes  and  contact  of  the  ben- 
zine with  their  bodies  will  kill  them.  The  specimens  them- 
selves should  not  be  soaked  in  the  benzine  if  possible,  as  it 
renders  them  brittle,  f 


*  The  common  museum  pests  are  A7ithre?ius  varius,  A.  musceorum, 
Attagenus  pellio,  Trogoderma  kirsale,  and  Dermestes  lardarius,  be- 
sides Tinea  pelltonella,  Megatoma,  and  Atropos  pulsatm'ius ;  in  Cali- 
fornia Perlmegatomn  'oariegntum  has  proved  destructive  to  collections. 
Ptinusfur  (Fig.  269)  is  also  liable  to  occur. 

f  We  find  by  placing  a  small  piece  of  cyanide  of  potassium  in  an 
open  short  vial  for  a  fortnight  in  an  insect  drawer  that  it  may  be 
thoroughly  disinfected;  for  permanent  use  naphthaline  cones  are 
effective.  Naphthaline  cones,  while  not  killing  the  larva?,  repel 
adult  anthreui,  etc.,  and  should  be  kept  constantly  in  boxes  or 
drawers.  Mr.  Schwarz  advocates  the  use  of  "  white  carbon,"  which 
is  naphthaline  sold  in  the  form  of  small,  square  rods,  costing  only  8 
cents  a  pound  wholesale,  and  which  is  much  purer  than  the  napli- 
thaline  cones  now  in  the  market.  When  broken  up  into  small 
pieces,  and  wrapped  in  thin  paper,  it  can  be  conveniently  used  in  in- 
sect boxes  or  drawers.  Mr.  Akhurst  u.ses  a  preparation  consisting  of 
3  parts  of  creosote  or  crude  carbolic  acid  and  1  part  oil  of  pennyroyal, 
applied  to  the  seams,  grooves,  and  edges  of  boxes  or  drawers  to  keep 
out  museum  pests.  Mr.  J.  B.  Smith  urges  the  use  of  bisulphide  of 
carbon,  which  both  serves  to  check  the  development  of  the  eggs  and 
to  destroy  the  recently-hatched  larvae  of  museum  pests.  He  finds 
that  the  only  chances  of  ssifety  from  infection  '  ■  consist  in  constant 


238 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Insect-cabinet. — For  permanent  exhibition^  a  cabinet  of 
shallow  drawers,  protected  by  doors,  is  most  useful.  A 
drawer  may  be  eighteen  by  twenty  inches  square,  and  two 
inches  deep  in  the  clear,  and  provided  with  a  tight  glass 
cover. 

For  a  permanent  cabinet,  says  Mr.  S.  H.  Scudder, 
nothing  can  excel  the  drawers  made  after  the  Deyrolle 
model,  now  in  use  by  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History. 
"  I  have  tried  them  for  six  years,  and  find  them  entirely 
pest-proof.  They  are  made  with  a  cover  of  glass  set  in  a 
frame  which  is  grooved  along  the  lower  edge  and  thus  fits 
tightly  into  a  narrow  strip  of  zinc  set  edgewise  into  a  cor- 
responding groove  in  the  drawer;  the  grooves  beyond  the 
point  of  intersection  of  two  sides  are  filled  with  a  bit  of 
wood  firmly  glued  in  place;  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that 
the  sides  of  the  drawer  and  the  frame  of  the  cover  should 
be  made  of  hard  wood;  soft  wood  would  not  retain  the  zinc 


Fig.  270. —Model  of  the  Deyrolle  insect-drawer,  side  view  of  front  end,  with  the 
cover  raised.  I>,  bottom  of  drawer;  C,  cover  of  same,  raised  a  little;  /,  front 
piece,  with  moulding:  (m)  and  handle  (h)  glued  to  bottom  piece;  sa,  sash;  si, 
slit  in  cover,  into  which  the  zinc  strip  (z)  fits;  sV ,  slit  in  bottom,  into  which 
it  is  fastened;  g,  bevelled  groove,  to  allow  the  finger  to  raise  the  cover;  Hv, 
hind  view  of  one  end  of  the  bottom  to  show  the  insertion  of  the  bottom  (6); 
Re,  reverse  of  one  corner  of  cover  to  show  the  grooves  filled  beyond  their 
junction.    All  the  figures  half  size. 

strip;  the  zinc  should  be  perfectly  straight,  and  the  ends 
well  matched;  if  this  be  done,  nothing  can  enter  the  box 

examination,  tight  boxes,  and  a  free  use  of  chloroform  or  bisulphide 
of  carbon"  (Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  Washington,  i.  115). 


PRESERVING  INSEGTS.  239 

when  it  is  closed.  A  similar  box  with  a  woodeu  rabbet  is 
used  at  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology  at  Cambridge; 
but  it  cannot  possibly  be  so  tight,  and  requires  hooks  on 
the  sides  to  keep  the  cover  down;  it  has  the  advantages  of 
greater  cheapness,  as  it  can  be  made  of  soft  wood,  but  is  at 
the  same  time  clumsier.  My  own  drawers  are  made  of 
cherry  sides,  and  have  also  a  false  front  attached  to  them, 
furnished  with  mouldings  and  handles  so  as  to  present  a  not 
inelegant  appearance;  and,  exclusive  of  the  cork  with  which 
they  are  lined,  cost  $2.65  each;  they  measure  inside  18f 
inches  long,  14  inches  wide,  and  If  inches  deep,  not  includ- 
ing the  cork  lining.'' 

In  the  drawers  in  use  by  the  TJ.  S.  Entomologist  at  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  there  are  on  the  sides  within, 
deep  grooves  kept  constantly  filled  with  naphthaline. 

For  constant  use,  boxes  made  of  thin, well-seasoned  wood,* 
with  tight-fitting  covers,  are  indispensable.  For  Coleop- 
tera.  Dr.  LeConte  recommends  that  they  be  twelve  by  nine 
inches  (inside  measui-ement).  For  the  larger  Lepidoptera 
a  little  larger  box  is  preferable.  Others  prefer  boxes  made 
in  the  form  of  books,  which  may  be  put  away  like  books  on 
the  shelves  of  the  cabinet,  though  the  cover  of  the  box  is 
apt  to  be  in  the  way. 

The  boxes  and  drawers  should  be  lined  with  cork  cut 
into  thin  slips  for  soles;  such  slips  come  from  the  cork- 
cutter  about  twelve  by  four  inches  square  and  an  eighth  of 
an  inch  thick. 

Other  substitutes  are  the  pith  of  various  plants,  especially 
of  corn;  "pita"  and  palm  wood;  and  '*' inodorous  felt"  is 
used,  being  cut  to  fit  the  bottom  of  the  box. 

LeConte  recommends  that,  ''for  the  purpose  of  distinguish- 
ing specimens  from  different  regions,  little  disks  of  variously- 
colored  paper  be  used;   they  are  easily  made   by  a  small 

*  Bass-wood,  or  that  of  the  poplar,  tulip-tree,  or  even  mahogany,  is 
better  than  pine,  as  the  resin  in  the  latter  sends  off  exhalations  which 
eventually  combine  with  the  fat  of  the  specimens  enclosed  in  the  bo:s 
and  render  them  greasy  {Psyche,  i.  64). 


240  ENTOMOLOGY. 

punch,  and  should  be  kept  in  wooden  pill-boxes  ready  for 
use;  at  the  same  time  a  key  to  the  colors,  showing  the 
regions  embraced  by  each,  should  be  made  on  the  fly-leaf 
of  the  catalogue  of  the  collection."  He  also  strongly  rec- 
ommends that  the  '^'specimens  should  all  be  pinned  at  the 
same  height,  since  the  ease  of  recognizing  species  allied  in 
characters  is  greatly  increased  by  having  them  on  the  same 
level." 

He  also  states  that  "it  is  better,  even  when  numbers  with 
reference  to  a  catalogue  are  employed,  that  the  name  of 
each  species  should  be  written  on  a  label  attached  to  the 
first  specimen.  Thus  the  eye  is  familiarized  with  the 
association  of  the  species  and  its  name,  memory  is  aided, 
and  greater  power  given  of  identifying  species  when  the 
cabinet  is  not  at  hand."  For  indicating  the  sexes  the  astro- 
nomical sign  3  (Mars)  is  used  for  the  male,  and  S  (Venus) 
for  the  female,  and  ?  for  the  worker. 

For  exhibiting  alcoholic  specimens  of  insects  in  different 
stages,  and  preventing  their  remaining  at  the  bottom  of 
bottles  on  the  shelves.  Prof.  Moebius  places  the  specimens 
in  a  glass  tube  filled  with  alcohol  and  having  a  stopper  of 
cotton-wool.  He  then  puts  the  insects  according  to  their 
age,  eggs  or  larvae  lowest,  in  a  stoppered  upright  bottle 
filled  with  alcohol,  in  the  middle  of  which  is  a  cylindrical 
glass  which  presses  the  glass  tube  against  the  side  of  the 
upright  vessel  (Zool.  Anzeiger,  vi.,  1883,  52-3). 

Transportation  of  Insects. — While  travelling,  all  hard- 
bodied  insects,  comprising  many  Hymenoptera,  the  Coleop- 
tera,  Hemiptera,  and  many  Neuroptera,  should  be  thrown, 
with  their  larvas,  etc.,  into  bottles  and  vials  filled  with 
strong  alcohol,  with  rubber  stoppers.  When  the  bottle  is 
filled  new  liquor  should  be  poured  in,  and  the  old  may  be 
saved  for  collecting  purposes;  in  this  way  the  specimens 
will  not  soften  and  can  be  preserved  indefinitely,  and  the 
colors  do  not,  in  most  cases,  change.  LeConte  states  that 
"if  the  bottles  are  in  danger  of  being  broken,  the  speci- 
mens, after  remaining  for  a  day  or  two  in  alcohol,  may  be 


PRESERVING  INSECTS.  241 

taken  out,  partially  dried  by  exposure  to  the  air,  but  not  so 
as  to  be  brittle,  and  these  packed  in  layers  in  small  boxes 
between  soft  paper;  the  boxes  should  then  be  carefully 
closed  with  gum-paper  or  paste,  so  as  to  exclude  all  enemies. " 

Lepidoptera  and  dragon-flies  and  other  soft-bodied  in- 
sects may  be  well  preserved  by  placing  them  in  square 
pieces  of  paper  folded  into  a  triangular  form  with  the  edges 
overlapping.  Put  up  thus,  multitudes  can  be  packed  away 
in  tin  boxes,  and  will  bear  ti'ansportation  to  any  distance. 
In  tropical  climates,  chests  lined  with  tin  should  be  made  to 
contain  the  insect-boxes,  which  can  thus  be  preserved 
against  the  ravages  of  white  ants,  etc. 

In  sending  live  larvae  by  mail,  they  should  be  inclosed  in 
little  tin  boxes;  and  in  sending  dry  specimens,  the  box  should 
be  light  and  strong,  and  directions  given  at  the  post-office 
to  stamp  the  box  lightly.  In  sending  boxes  by  express,  they 
should  be  carefully  packed  in  a  larger  box  having  an 
interspace  of  two  inches,  which  can  be  filled  in  tightly  with 
hay  or  crumpled  bits  of  paper.  Beetles  can  be  wrapped  in 
pieces  of  soft  paper.  Labels  for  alcoholic  specimens  should 
consist  of  parchment,  with  the  locality,  date  of  capture,  and 
name  of  collector  written  in  ink.  A  temporary  label  of  firm 
paper,  with  the  locality,  etc.,  written  with  a  pencil,  will 
last  for  several  years. 

Preservation  of  Larvae. — Alcoholic  specimens  of  insects, 
in  all  stages  of  growth,  are  very  useful.  Few  collections 
contain  alcoholic  specimens  of  the  adult  insect.  This  is 
a  mistake.  Many  of  the  most  important  characters  are 
effaced  during  the  drying  process,  and  for  purposes  of 
general  study  alcoholic  specimens,  even  of  bees,  Lepidop- 
tera, Diptera,  and  dragon-flies,  are  very  necessary. 

LarvEe,  generally,  may  be  well  preserved  in  vials  or  bottles 
of  alcohol  with  rubber  corks.*     They  should  first  be  put 

*  Although  rubber  stoppers  are  more  expensive  than  the  best  cork 
stoppers,  they  are  more  durable,  aiui  prevent  evaporation  vastly  better; 
in  corking,  run  an  insect- pin  down  by  the  cork,  allowing  it  to  remain 
in  for  a  while,  thus  allowing  the  air  to  escape  and  preventing  the 


242  ENTOMOLOGY. 

into  whiskey,  and  then  into  alcohol.  If  placed  in  the  latter 
first,  they  shrivel  and  become  distorted.  Mr.  E.  Burgess 
preserves  caterpillars  with  the  colors  unchanged,  by  im- 
mersing them  in  boiling  water  thirty  or  forty  seconds,  and 
then  placing  them  in  equal  parts  of  alcohol  and  water.  It  is 
well  to  collect  larvae  and  pupa?  indiscriminately,  even  if  we 
do  not  know  their  adult  forms;  we  can  approximate  to  them, 
and  in  some  cases  tell  very  exactly  what  they  must  be. 


Reasing  Aquatic  Larv^. 

Many  insects  pass  their  early  stages  in  brooks  or  ponds. 
They  can  be  dredged  with  the  water-net,  and  reared  in  pans 
or  jars  of  water  in  which  a  few  water-cresses,  mosses,  or 
other  aquatic  plants  may  be  kept  to  oxydize  the  water  and 
keep  it  pure.  In  this  way  the  larvae  or  nymphs  of  Pei'lidae, 
may-flies,  dragon-flies,  caddis-flies,  aquatic  beetles,  Diptera, 
and  moths  may  be  reared  with  more  or  less  success.  By 
collecting  such  larvae  in  March,  April,  and  May,  a  good 
many  species  may  be  brought  to  maturity  within  a  few 
weeks'  time. 

Any  glass  jar,  or  eveji  a  deep  earthen  pan,  may  suffice  for 
an  aquarium,  in  place  of  more  elaborate  glass  and  iron  struc- 
tures. 

Mr.  Lugger  has  invented  an  aquarium  which  he  finds 
very  convenient  for  rearing  aquatic  insects;  it  consists  of  a 
tin  box  one  foot  square  in  front  and  about  three  inches 
thick,  with  a  glass  front.  Over  this  glass  front  slips  a 
round-oval  picture-frame.  If  the  inside  is  painted  and 
filled  with  water,  the  whole  looks  like  a  suspended  picture 
of  rather  unusual  thickness.  Several  such  aquaria  can  be 
grouped  together  like  so  many  pictures.  If  connected  by 
siphons  carefully  graded,  a  constant  flow  of  water  can  be 
obtained,  which  produces  the  necessary  current  and  sup- 
strong  compression  of  the  alcohol,  which  tends  to  force  the  cork  out. 
See  Dr.  Hagen  on  the  use  of  rubber  stoppers,  Can.  Ent.,  xviii.  p.  1. 

16 


PRESERVING  AND  REARING  INSECTS.  243 

plies  the  needed  amount  of  oxygen.  In  such  aquaria 
aquatic  larvae  and  insects  can  be  studied  with  great  con- 
venience. The  addition  of  some  water-plants  adds  gi'eatly 
to  the  beauty  of  these  aquarial  pictures.  (Proc.  Ent.  Soc. 
Washington,  i.  37.) 

Rearing  Insects  in  General. 

More  attention  has  been  paid  by  entomologists  to  rearing 
caterpillars  than  the  young  of  any  other  orders  of  insects, 
and  the  following  remarks  apply  more  particularly  to  them, 
but  very  much  the  same  methods  may  be  pursued  in  rear- 
ing the  larvae  of  Neuroptera,  beetles,  flies,  and  Hymen- 
optera.  Subterranean  larvae  have  to  be  kept  in  moist  earth, 
aquatic  larvae  must  be  reared  in  aquaria,  and  carnivorous 
larvae  must  be  supplied  with  flesh.  The  larvae  of  butter- 
flies are  usually  rare;  those  of  moths  occur  more  frequently, 
while  their  imagos  may  be  scarce.  In  some  years  many 
larvas,  which  are  usually  rare,  occur  in  abundance,  and 
should  then  be  reared  in  numbers.  In  hunting  for  cater- 
pillars, bushes  should  be  shaken  and  beaten  over  newspapers 
or  sheets,  or  an  umbrella;  herbage  should  be  swept,  and 
trees  examined  carefully  for  leaf-rollers  and  miners.  The 
best  specimens  of  moths  and  butterflies  are  obtained  by 
rearing  them  from  the  egg,*  or  from  the  larva  or  pupa.     In 


*  Lepidoptera  lay  on  the  average  from  100  to  700  eggs:  those  of 
butterflies  should  be  looked  for  on  th'e  herbs,  bushes,  or  trees  about 
which  they  fly;  those  of  sphinges  on  the  flowers  apt  to  be  visited  by 
them.  The  eggs  will  be  found  after  patient  search  by  turning  up  the 
leaves  of  willows,  azaleas,  and  other  plants.  As  a  rule  a  butterfly  or 
moth  follows  a  path  or  fence  side  when  laying;  so  upon  finding  the 
first  egg  or  larva  we  more  minutely  examine  each  shrub,  for  they  are 
very  apt  to  lay  an  egg  on  each  prominent  one  as  they  go  along.  "  And 
it  is  not  difficult  to  follow  the  path  of  the  parent  for  quite  a  distance; 
and  so  the  finding  of  one  egg  means  almost  surely  the  finding  of 
more."     G.  D.  Hiilst  (Bull.  Brooklyn  Ent.  Soc,  ii.  13.) 

The  same  is  the  case  with  the  search  for  rare  caterpillars;  our  best 
breeders  of  rarities  search  patiently  by  turning  up  one  leaf  after 
another  for  them.  For  want  of  time,  and  especially  when  the  branches 
are  high,  we  use  a  stick  and  umbrella,  and  beat  tlic  branches  or  leaves 


244  ENTOMOLOGY. 

confinement  the  food  should  be  kept  fresh,  and  the  box  well 
yentilated.  Tumblers  covered  with  gauze,  pasteboard  boxes 
pierced  with  holes  and  fitted  with  glass  in  the  covers,  or 
large  glass  jars,  are  very  convenient  to  use  as  cages.  The 
bottom  of  such  vessels  may  be  covered  with  moist  sand,  in 
which  the  food-plant  of  the  larva  may  be  stuck  and  kept 
fresh  for  several  days.  Larger  and  more  airy  boxes,  a  foot 
square,  with  the  sides  of  gauze,  and  fitted  with  a  door 
through  which  a  bottle  of  water  may  be  introduced,  serve 
well.  The  following  extract  from  Kiley's  "  Fifth  Annual 
Report  on  the  Injurious  Insects  of  Missouri "  illustrates  his 
style  of  vivarium: 

"  For  larger  insects  I  use  a  breeding-cage  or  vivarium  of 
my  own  devising,  and  which  answers  the  purpose  admirably. 
It  is  represented  in  Fig.  271,  and  comprises  three  distinct 
parts:  1st,  the  bottom  board  («),  consisting  of  a  square 
piece  of  inch-thick  walnut  with  a  rectangular  zinc  pan  {ff), 
four  inches  deep,  fastened  to  it,  above,  and  with  two  cross- 
pieces  {gg)  below,  to  prevent  cracking  or  warping,  facilitate 
lifting,  and  allow  the  air  to  pass  underneath  the  cage.  2d, 
a  box  {b),  with  three  glass  sides  and  a  glass  door  in  front, 
to  fit  over  the  zinc  pan.  3d,  a  cap  {c),  which  fits  closely 
on  to  the  box,  and  has  a  top  of  fine  wire  gauze.  To  the 
centre  of  the  zinc  pan  is  soldered  a  zinc  tube  {d)  just  large 
enough  to  contain  an  ordinary  quinine  bottle.  The  zinc 
pan  is  filled  with  clean  sifted  earth  or  sand  (e),  and  the 
quinine  bottle  is  for  the  reception  of  the  food-plant.  The 
cage  admits  of  abundant  light  and  air,  and  also  of  the 
easy  removal  of  the  excrement  and  frass  which  fall  to  the 
ground;  while  the  insects  in  transforming  enter  the  ground 
or  attach  themselves  to  the  sides  or  the  cap,  according  to 
their  habits.  The  most  convenient  dimensions  I  find  to  be 
twelve  inches  square  and  eighteen  inches  high:  the  cap  and 
the  door  fit  cloir.ely  by  means  of  rabbets,  and  the  former  has 


into  the  outspread  umbrella;  this  method  is  successful  for  fir,  spruce, 
and  pine  trees,  as  well  as  forest  trees  in  general. 


BEARING  INSECTS  IN  GENERAL. 


245 


a  depth  of  about  four  inches  to  admit  of  tlie  largest  cocoon 
being  spun  in  it  without  touching  the  box  on  which  it  rests. 


Fig.  271.  —Breeding-cage. 


The  zinc  pan  might  be  made  six  or  eight  inches  deep,  and 
the  lower  half  filled  with  sand,  so  as  to  keep  the  whole 
moist  for  a  greater  length  of  time. 

"  K  dozen  such  cages  will  furnish  room  for  the  annual 
breeding  of  a  great  number  of  species,  as  several  having 
different  habits  and  appearance,  and  which  there  is  no 
danger  of  confounding,  may  be  simultaneously  fed  in  the 
same  cage.  I  number  each  of  the  three  parts  of  each  cage, 
to  prevent  misplacement  and  to  facilitate  reference;  and 
aside  from  the  notes  made  in  the  note-book,  it  will  aid  the 


246  ENTOMOLOGY. 

memory  and  exjiedite  matters  to  keep  a  short  open  record 
of  the  species  contained  in  each  cage,  by  means  of  slips  of 
paper  pasted  on  to  tlie  glass  door.  As  fast  as  the  different 
specimens  complete  their  transformations  and  are  taken 
from  the  cage  the  notes  may  be  altered  or  erased,  or  the 
slips  wetted  and  removed  entirely.  To  prevent  possible 
confonnding  of  the  different  species  which  enter  the  ground, 
it  is  well,  from  time  to  time,  to  sift  the  earth,  separate  the 
pupae  and  place  them  in  Avhat  I  call  imago  cages,  used 
for  this  purpose  alone  and  not  for  feeding.  Here  they 
may  be  arranged,  with  reference  to  their  exact  where- 
abouts. '*' 

The  object  is  to  keep  the  food-plant  fresh,  the  air  cool, 
the  larva  out  of  the  sun,  and  in  fact  everything  in  such  a 
state  of  equilibrium  that  the  larva  will  not  feel  the  change 
of  circumstances  when  kept  in  confinement. 

Sugaring  for  Moths. — We  may  set  bait  or  ''sugar"  for 
moths,  smearing  the  mixture  of  sugar  and  vinegar  on  the 
bark  of  a  tree,  and  visiting  the  spot  by  night  with  the  lan- 
tern and  net.  A  mixture  of  cheap  brown  sugar  mixed 
with  a  little  hot  water  and  beer,  or  one  of  some  beer  and 
molasses  in  equal  parts,  flavored  with  a  little  rum  or  brandy, 
may  be  applied  with  a  paint-brush  before  dusk  to  stumps, 
trunks  of  trees,  or  fences;  some  prefer  to  lay  it  on  in  long 
and  narrow  streaks  rather  than  in  broad  patches.  With  a 
dark-lantern  hanging  from  a  strap  around  the  waist,  the 
collector  may  visit  the  trees  several  times  during  an  even- 
ing, especially  a  warm,  damp,  foggy,  still  night. 

Mr.  0.  S.  AVestcott  advises  the  night  collector  to  have 
two  wide-mouthed  bottles,  each  witli  a  chloroform  sponge 
tacked  on  the  bottom  of  the  cork;  also  two  cyanide  of 
potassium  bottles,  to  which  the  temporarily  anaesthetized 
moths  may  be  transferred  (Can.  Ent.,  viii.  12). 

Traps  for  Moths,  etc. — Taking  advantage  of  moths  flying 
to  lights,*  many  can  be  collected  about  gas  or  electric  lights. 

*  It  ivS  a  curious  fact  that  in  general  the  males  alone  are  attracted 
to  light;  the  same  is  probably  true  of  beetles,  at  least  the  June  beetle. 


REARING  CATERPILLARS.  247 

Indeed,  the  electric  lights  now  make  the  hest  collecting 
places,  uiid  they  attract  moths  and  beetles  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  almost  nothing  can  be  taken  at  sugar  or  gas- 
lamps  where  these  lights  are  situated.  A  light  trap  may- 
be made  by  a  lantern  combined  with  a  reflector,  suspended 
out  of  doors  ;  under  the  lantern  a  fl^nnel  several  inches 
larger  than  the  lantern  may  reach  down  into  a  box  or  bottle 
containing  the  fumes  of  chloroform  or  ether,  or  benzine, 
or,  if  the  lantern  is  used  for  beetles,  into  a  bottle  filled  with 
dilute  alcohol. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  as  Mr.  Thaxter  observes, 
that  Noctuids  always  fly  against  the  wind,  and  unless  the 
light  is  so  placed  that  they  can  fly  thus  to  get  to  it,  one's 
success  will  be  slight. 

We  will  now  describe  the  methods  of  rearing  and  pre- 
serving insects  of  different  orders. 


Reabing  Caterpillars. 

The  best  specimens  of  moths  and  butterflies  are  obtained 
by  rearing  them  from  the  egg,  or  from  the  larva  or  pupa. 
Besides  merely  breeding  caterpillars  in  order  to  procure 
good  specimens  for  the  cabinet,  the  modern  student  of 
entomology  who  desires  to  trace  the  genealogy  of  Lepidop- 
tera  should  study  the  freshly-hatched  larva,  and  compare  it 
and  the  other  early  stages  with  the  full-grown  larva,  so  as 
to  obtain  a  complete  life-history,  with  colored  illustrations, 
of  each  stage.  Hence  a  good  deal  of  care  must  be  exercised 
in  breeding  and  describing  caterpillars.  In  confinement 
the  food  should  be  kept  fresh,  and  the  breeding  cage  or  box 
well  ventilated.  Tumblers  covered  with  gauze,  pasteboard 
boxes  pierced  with  holes  and  fitted  with  glass  in  the  covers, 
or  large  glass  jars — but  better  still,  tin  boxes  of  different 
sizes,  in  which  the  food  remains  fresh  for  several  days — are 
very  convenient  to  use  as  cages.  The  bottom  of  such  ves- 
sels may  be  covered  with  moist  sand,  in  which  the  food- 


248  ENTOMOLOGY. 

plant  of  the  larva  may  be  stuck  and  kept  fresh  for  several 
days.  In  rearing  from  the  Qg^,  says  Scudder,  the  greatest 
difficulty  is  during  early  life  ;  young  caterpillars  must  have 
the  freshest  and  tenderest  food  and  not  too  much  confine- 
ment. With  all  precautions  many  will  be  lost,  for  they  are  so 
small  that  it  is  difficult  to  keep  track  of  them,  and  some  are 
very  prone  to  wander  when  their  food  does  not  suit  them. 
They  are  best  reared  in  some  open  vessel  covered  with  gauze, 
with  the  growing  plant,  placed  in  the  light,  but  not  in  the 
sun.  Most  caterpillars  change  to  pupse  in  the  autumn; 
and  those  which  transform  in  the  earth  should  be  covered 
with  earth,  kept  damp  by  wet  moss,  and  placed  in  the 
cellar  until  the  following  summer.  The  collector  in  seek- 
ing for  larvjB  should  carry  a  good  number  of  pill-boxes,  and 
especially  a  close  tin  box,  in  which  the  leaves  may  be  kept 
fresh  for  a  long  time.  The  different  forms  and  markings 
of  caterpillars  should  be  noted,  and  they  should  be  drawn 
carefully  together  with  a  leaf  of  the  food-plant,  and  the 
drawings  and  pupa  skins,  and  perfect  insect,  be  numbered 
to  corresj)ond.  Descriptions  of  caterpillars  cannot  be  too 
carefully  made,  or  too  long.  The  relative  size  of  the  head, 
its  ornamentation,  the  stripes  and  spots  of  the  body,  and 
the  position  and  number  of  tubercles,  and  the  hairs,  or 
fascicles  of  hairs,  or  spines  and  spinules,  which  arise  from 
them,  should  be  noted,  besides  the  general  form  of  the 
body.  The  lines  along  the  body  are  called  dorsal  if  in  the 
middle  of  the  back;  subdorsal  if  upon  one  side;  lateral 
and  ventral  when  on  the  sides  and  under  surface;  or  stig- 
matal  if  including  the  stigmata  or  breathing-pores,  which 
are  generally  parti-colored.  Indeed,  the  whole  biography 
of  an  insect  should  be  ascertained  by  the  observer;  the 
points  to  be  noted  are: 

1.  Date  when  and  how  the  eggs  are  laid;  and  number, 
size,  and  marking  of  the  eggs. 

2.  Date  of  hatching,  the  appearance,  food-plant  of  larva, 
and  number  of  days  between  each  moulting;  the  changes 


REABINa  INSECTS.  249 

the  larva  undergoes,  Avhich  are  often  remarkable,  especially 
at  the  first  moulting,  with  drawings  illustrative  of  these; 
tlie  habits  of  the  larva,  whether  solitary  or  gregarious, 
wliether  a  day  or  night  feeder;  the  ichneumon  parasites, 
and  their  mode  of  attack.  Specimens  of  larvae  in  the  dif- 
ferent moultings  should  be  preserved  in  alcohol.  The  ajj- 
pearance  of  the  larvae  when  full-fed,  the  date,  number  of 
days  before  pupating,  tlie  formation  and  description  of  the 
cocoon,  the  duration  of  larvae  in  the  cocoon  before  pupation, 
their  appearance  just  before  changing,  their  appearance 
while  changing,  and  alcoholic  specimens  of  larvse  in  the  act, 
should  all  be  studied  and  noted. 

3.  Date  of  pupation;  description  of  the  pupa  or  chrysalis; 
duration  of  the  pupa  state,  habits,  etc. ;  together  with  al- 
coholic specimens  or  pinned  dry  ones.  Lepidopterous  pup^e 
should  be  looked  for  late  in  the  summer,  or  in  the  fall  and 
spring,  about  the  roots  of  trees,  and  kept  moist  in  mould 
until  the  imago  appears.  (Many  Coleopterous  pup»  may 
also  occur  in  mould  and,  if  aquatic,  under  submerged  sticks 
and  stones,  and  those  of  borers  under  the  bark  of  decaying 
trees. ) 

4.  Date  when  the  insect  escapes  from  the  pupa,  and 
method  of  escape;  duration  of  life  of  the  imago;  and  the 
number  of  broods  in  a  season. 

Drawing  Caterpillars. — After  some  practice  any  one  can 
make  a  recognizable  drawing  of  even  an  insect,  especially  of 
a  caterpillar,  and  after  a  little  experience  even  a  sketch  in 
water-colors.  Drawing  in  natural  history  is  all-important 
to  the  beginner;  it  trains  the  eye  to  observe  closely,  and 
good  sketches  of  the  early  stages  of  insects  are  especially 
needed  in  this  country.  Various  cameras  have  been  contrived 
to  enable  the  artist  to  get  a  correct  outline  of  objects,  while 
for  flat,  microscopic  objects  the  use  of  the  camera  lucida  is 
invaluable;  after  a  few  trials  it  can  be  used  both  for  draw- 
ing outlines  and  filling  in  details.  In  this  way  the  larvae 
of  the  Micro-lepidoptera  mounted  on  glass  slides  may  be 
drawn. 


250  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Managing  Caterpillars  in  Confinement. — Tliey  may  be  en- 
closed iu  gauze  bugs  tied  over  the  smaller  branches  of  the 
food-tree,  yet  they  have  to  be  watched;  they  need  attention 
after  lieavy  showers  or  storms;  and  some  will  eat  their  way 
through  just  before  pupation.  For  caterpillars  in  confine- 
ment air  and  light  are  necessary,  though  many  do  well  bred 
in  small  tin  boxes  without  ventilation.  The  boxes  should 
be  cleaned  every  day;  removing  the  castings  and  bits  of 
leaves,  as  well  as  sick  or  dead  larvas.  If  any  contagious 
disease  appears,  all  the  sick  caterpillars  should  be  burnt  and 
the  box  cleansed  with  dilute  carbolic-acid  water.  The  food 
should  be  renewed  every  day,  and  if  possible  put  into  a 
bottle  of  water  closed  with  cotton  to  prevent  caterpillars  from 
falling  in.  Too  much  food  in  a  small  jar  or  box  fouls  the  air 
and  hastens  its  own  decay.  After  beginning  to  feed  larvae 
with  one  kind  of  food-plant,  it  is  dangerous  to  change  it  for 
another;  hence  they  should  be  fed  on  the  kind  of  plants  on 
which  they  are  first  found. 

Dr.  Knaggs  has,  in  the  "Entomologist's  Monthly  Maga- 
zine," given  some  directions  for  managing  caterpillars.  Very 
young  caterpillars,  which  will  not  eat  the  food  provided,  and 
become  restless,  should  be  reared  in  air-tight  jam-pots,  the 
tops  of  which  are  covered  with  green  glass  to  darken  the  in- 
terior of  the  vessel.  When  small  larvae  hide  themselves  by 
mining,  entering  buds,  and  spinning  together  leaves,  they 
should  have  as  small  a  quantity  of  food  as  possible.  In  cliang- 
ing  larvae  from  one  plant  to  a  fresh  one,  a  sliglit  jar  or  puff 
of  breath  will  dislodge  them,  and  they  can  be  transferred  to 
the  jam-pot;  or  the  glass  cylinder,  covered  at  one  end  with 
muslin,  can  be  turned  muslin  end  downwards  for  them  to 
crawl  upon.  The  duplicate  breeding-cage,  pot  or  tube, 
should  be  '^sweetened"  by  a  free  current  of  fresh  dry  air 
and  then  stocked  with  fresh  food. 

Dr.  Knaggs  advises  that  "  hiding-places"  or  bits  of  chips, 
etc.,  be  provided  for  such  Noctuid  larvae  as  naturally  lie 
concealed,  such  as  Orthosia,  Xanthia,  Noctua,  etc.,  ''while 


REAMING  INSECTS.  251 

for  Agrotis  aud  a  few  others  a  considerable  depth  of  jfine 
earth  or  sand  is  necessary/'* 

'^  Larvae,  which  in  nature  hibernate,  must  either  be 
stimulated  by  warmth  and  fresh  food  to  feed  up  unnatu- 
rally fast,  or  else  through  the  winter  must  be  exposed  to 
out-door  temperature.''  Hibernating,  hairy  larvfe  must  be 
kept  dry  during  winter.  For  such  larvse  as  begin  to  eat 
before  the  trees  are  leaved  out,  the  leaves  of  evergreens 
must  be  provided,  pine  leaves,  chickweed,  grasses  and 
mosses.  On  the  other  hand,  Mr.  W.  H.  Edwards  has  fed 
belated  larvae  of  Papilio  cresphontes  on  dried  leaves  of 
prickly  ash,  softened  in  water.  He  also  fed  another  belated 
lot  with  leaves  of  the  hop-tree  which  had  been  gathered  for 
two  years.  These  he  soaked  overnight,  laid  between  blot- 
ting-paper, and  the  larvae  ate  them  readily.  Larvae  from 
other  countries  may  be  fed  in  the  same  manner,  the  food- 
plants  being  sent  by  mail.  Mr.  Greene  describes  what  he 
calls  his  ^'larvarium,  viz.,  a  very  large  box,  say  three  feet 
square  and  about  the  same  in  depth,  filled  partly  with 
mould  covered  with  moss."  The  edges  of  the  toj)  of  this 
box  must  be  smoothly  shaved  to  suit  the  lid,  which  is  like 
the  frame  of  a  slate,  the  slate  being  knocked  out.  This  is 
then  covered  with  gauze.  In  a  box  of  this  size  small 
branches  may  be  held  in  l)ottles  of  water,  and  two  or  three 
dozen  larvae  safely  housed.  If  placed  in  a  cool  room,  with 
plenty  of  air,  they  will  grow  almost  as  large  as  if  in  free- 
dom. Mr.  Gibson  strongly  recommends  that  during  the 
winter  all  cages  containing  larvae  be  placed  in  front  of  a 
window  facing  the  east  or  northeast,  so  that  the  inmates 
may  be  kept  as  cool  as  possible. 

When  the  moth  is  fairly  out  of  the  pupa,  as  remarked  by 
Mr.  Sanborn,  their  wings  often  fail  to  properly  expand  on 

*  Many  larvae  require  earth  during  all  their  entire  existence  as  such, 
and  very  many  more  require  it  for  pupation.  The  Noctuids,  especiallj', 
burrow  in  the  earth  during  the  day,  and  the  Catocaloe,  as  well  as  many 
others,  must  have  clean  litter  in  which  to  hide,  for  they  feed  only  at 
night,  and  lie  concealed  under  bark,  in  crevices,  and  among  grass- 
roots and  leaves  during  the  day. 


252  ENTOMOLOGY, 

iioconnt  of  tlie  want  of  moisture,  "  the  insect  being  unable 
to  expand  its  wings  in  a  heated,  dry  room.  He  has  avoided 
this  difficulty  by  placing  the  insect  just  emerged,  or  about 
to  come  forth,  beneath  a  bell-glass,  within  which  he  had 
placed  moistened  pieces  of  bibulous  paper." 

By  taking  advantage  of  the  habit  of  many  tree-feeding 
caterpillars  of  changing  to  pupae  (pupating)  in  the  soil  close 
to  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  many  rare  moths  can  with  little 
trouble  be  raised  from  the  chrysalides  thus  found.  As  the 
Kev.  Joseph  Greene  ("The  Insect-hunter's  Companion," 
London,  1870)  advises,  the  dirt  around  the  trunk  should 
be  dug  up  with  a  trowel,  and  carefully  examined  for  chry- 
salides. He  adds  that  "pupae  may  be  found  almost  any- 
where and  everywhere,  under  moss  on  large  stones  and 
boulders,  in  the  decayed  stumps  of  old  trees,  behind  tlie 
loose  bark  on  palings,  between  dead  leaves,  under  moss  on 
banks,  etc.,  etc." 

Hibernating  Larvae. — These  are  very  apt  to  die  when 
artificially  hibernated.  If  kept  too  dry  they  die  from  lack 
of  moisture;  if  kept  too  moist  they  are  apt  to  be  attacked 
by  fungi.  The  effort  should  be  to  keep  them  at  a  tempera- 
ture as  steady  as  possible  and  below  the  freezing  point.  If 
placed  in  a  cellar  with  the  window  open,  or  among  leaves 
out  of  doors  in  a  box  protected  from  rain  and  snow,  in  con- 
ditions as  nearly  as  possible  to  nature,  they  may  be  in  many 
cases  successfully  carried  over  througli  the  winter. 

Management  of  Pupae. — Mr.  S.  Lowell  Elliott,  who  has 
been  remarkably  successful  in  rearing  butterflies  and  moths, 
breeding  them  by  the  hundreds  and  even  thousands,  has  a 
pupa-box  of  the  following  description:  It  is  about  20x16 
inches,  and  8  inches  deep,  with  a  bottom  of  coarse  wire 
cloth  placed  about  3  inches  from  the  bottom,  so  that  the 
box  can  be  set  over  a  fiat  earthen  pan  of  water;  it  is  divided 
by  thin  wooden  partitions  into  four  compartments,  the 
bottom  of  each  of  which  is  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of 
baked  Sphagnum  moss  which  has  been  pulled  into  fine  bits. 
The  pup»  are  laid  on  this  floor  of  moss,  and  covered  over 


REARING  INSECTS.  253 

with  a  thick  layer  of  moss  prepared  in  the  same  manner  as 
that  beneath.  The  box  is  covered  by  a  glass  plate  kept  in 
place  by  projections  from  the  sides.  During  the  winter  the 
pan  of  water  may  be  dispensed  with,  and  the  box  put  into 
a  cellar-room  with  the  window  partly  open,  so  that  the  fresh 
moist  air  may  penetrate,  or  in  a  cool  attic;  or,  better,  placed 
in  such  a  situation  outside  of  the  house  that  the  box  will 
not  receive  injury,  while  the  pupae  will  be  kept  cool  and  not 
too  damp.  We  have  found  that  such  a  box,  with  water  in 
course  of  evaporation  under  it,  is  by  far  the  best  place  to 
keejj  pupte  both  in  summer  and  winter. 

When  the  moths  emerge,  they  are  transferred  by  Mr. 
Elliott  to  another  box  (or  rather  a  series  of  them,  for  keep- 
ing numerous  specimens  at  the  same  time),  with  a  glass 
top,  and  a  stick  introduced  on  which  the  moth  may  hang 
suspended  by  its  feet  until  the  wings  are  fully  expanded 
and  the  body  sufficiently  dried;  they  are  then  transferred 
to  the  poisoning-box,  and  the  insect  is  finally  set,  before  a 
wing  has  fluttered. 

Pairing  or  Mating  Lepidoptera  in  Captivity, — ''It  is 
common  enough,^'  says  Mr.  W.  H.  Edwards,  ''for  certain 
Sphinges  and  Bombycidae  to  mate  in  boxes  and  immediate- 
ly after  leaving  the  pupas.  This  may  happen  when  the 
eggs  are  mature  at  the  birth  of  the  insect.  With  many 
species  of  butterflies  the  eggs  do  not  mature  for  several 
days  after  leaving  the  chrysalis,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
large  Argynnids;  but  with  others,  as  Phyciodes  tUaros, 
nycteiK,  and  myrina,  they  are  mature  from  the  start.  I 
have  not  experimented  in  this  direction,  but  from  what 
Miss  E.  L.  Morton,  of  N'ewburgh,  N.  Y.,  tells  me,  it  may 
be  possible  to  induce  butterflies  of  some  species  to  mate 
and  so  to  obtain  eggs,  for  the  eggs  are  laid  very  shortly 
after  copulation,  as  I  have  several  times  observed.  Miss 
Morton  had  by  mistake  placed  a  male  Satyrus  alojw  under 
a  bag  of  netting  on  grass.  Three  days  later  she  introduced 
a  female,  which  up  to  that  time  was  supposed  to  be  the 
second  female.     Almost  immediately  the  pair  mated,  and 


254  EFTOMOLOGT. 

a  few  hours  later  eggs  were  laid.  In  attempting  to  get 
eggs  in  this  manner,  it  would  be  best  that  a  male  caught 
in  the  field  should  be  introduced  to  a  female  just  from  the 
chrysalis,  for  in  the  field  it  is  these  last  which  are  sought 
by  the  males.  Almost  always,  when  a  pair  of  butterflies  in 
copulation  are  taken,  the  male  will  be  found  worn  or 
broken,  while  the  female  is  uninjured  in  wing  and  there- 
fore must  have  lately  left  the  chrysalis"  (Can.  Entomologist, 
xviii.  17). 

Mr.  S.  Lowell  Elliott  very  successfully  mates  Bombyces, 
etc.,  by  placing  the  sexes  in  a  gauze  mating-bag  suspended 
in  a  room  through  which  passes  a  current  of  air  from  out 
of-doors. 

Mr.  Edwards  also  covers  a  branch  of  the  food-plant  with 
a  bag  of  fine  netting,  placing  the  female  within,  so  that 
she  can  move  freely  about;  she  should  have  plenty  of  light, 
though  not  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  If  the 
plant  is  a  small  one  it  may  be  covered  with  a  headless  keg, 
covered  at  one  end  with  gauze. 

Treatment  of  the  Eggs. — They  should  be  kept  in  a  not 
too  dry  or  overheated  atmosphere,  and  should  be  so  placed 
that  at  its  birth,  without  effort,  the  larva  at  once  finds  fresh 
food.* 

Collecting  and  Rearing  Micro-lepidoptera.  —  For  col- 
lecting and  preserving  these  minute  and  delicate  moths, 
which  are  called  by  collectors  Micro-lepidoptera,  especial 
instructions  are  necessary.  AVhen  the  moth  is  taken  in 
the  net,  it  can  be  blown  by  the  breath  into  the  bottom. 
"  Then  by  elevating  the  hand  through  the  ring,  or  on  a 
level  with  it,  a  common  cupping-glass  of  about  two  inches 
in  diameter,  or  a  wine-glass  carried  in  the  pocket,  is  placed 
on  top  of  the  left  hand  over  the  constricted  portion,  the 
grasp  relaxed,  and  the  insect  permitted  to  escape  through 
the  opening  into  its  interior.  The  glass  is  then  closed 
below  by  the  left  hand  on  the  outside  of  the  net,  and  may 

*  Hulst  and  Tbalenhorst  in  Bulletin  Brooklyn  Ent.  Soc,  ii.  63; 
other  hints  are  taken,  sometimes  verbatim,  from  this  article. 


BEARING  INSECTS.  255 

be  transferred  to  the  top  of  the  collecthig-box,  when  it  can 
be  quieted  by  cliloroform."  (Clemens.)  Or  the  motlismay 
be  collected  in  pill-boxes,  and  then  carried  home  and  ojaened 
into  a  larger  box  filled  with  fumes  of  ether  or  benzine  or 
cyanide  of  potassium.  In  pinching  any  moths  on  the 
thorax,  as  is  sometimes  done,  the  form  of  that  region  is  in- 
variably distorted,  and  many  of  the  scales  removed.  In 
searching  for  Micros  we  must  look  carefully  on  the  lee 
side  of  trees,  fences,  hedges,  and  undulations  in  the  ground, 
for  they  avoid  the  wind.  Indeed,  we  can  take  advantage 
of  this  habit  of  many  Micros,  and  by  blowing  vigorously  on 
the  trunks  of  trees  start  the  moth  off  into  the  net  so  placed 
as  to  intercept  it.  This  method  is  most  productive,  C.  G. 
Barrett  states,  in  the  "Entomologist's  Monthly  Magazine," 
while  a  steady  wind  is  blowing. 

The  larva^  vary  excessively  in  the  number  of  legs,  sixteen 
being  the  usual  number,  but  in  several  genera  (Gracilaria, 
Lithocolletis,  etc.)  we  only  find  fourteen  ;  in  Nepticula, 
though  the  legs  are  but  poorly  developed,  they  number 
eighteen  ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  larva?  of  a  few  of  the 
smaller  genera  (Antispila,  Tinagma,  etc.)  are  absolutely 
footless. 

In  seeking  for  the  larvae,  we  must  rememljer  that  most  of 
them  are  leaf-miners,  and  their  burrows  are  detected  by  the 
waved,  brown,  withered  lines  on  the  surface  of  leaves,  and 
their  frass,  or  excrement,  thrown  out  at  one  end.  Some 
are  ;found  between  united  leaves,  of  which  the  upper  is 
crumpled.  Others  construct  portable  cases  which  they 
draw  about  the  trunks  of  trees,  fences,  etc.  Others  burrow 
in  the  stems  of  grass,  or  in  fungi,  toadstools!,  and  in  the  pith 
of  currant  or  raspberry  bushes.  Most  are  solitary,  a  few 
gregarious.  A  bush  stripped  of  its  leaves  and  covered  with 
webs,  if  not  done  by  Clisiocampa  (the  American  tent-cater- 
l^illar),  will  witness  the  work  of  a  Tortrix  or  Tineid.  Buds 
of  unfolded  herbs  suffer  from  their  attacks,  such  as  the 
heads  of  composite  flowers  which  are  drawn  together  and 
consumed  by  the  larvse. 


256  ENTOMOLOGY. 

After  some  practice  in  rearing  larva?  it  will  be  found  easier 
and  more  profitable  to  search  for  the  leaf-miners,  and  rear 
the  perfect,  fresh,  and  uninjured  moths  from  them.  In  this 
way  many  species  never  found  in  the  perfect  state  can  be 
secured.  * 

In  raising  Micro  larvae  it  is  essential  that  the  leaf  in 
which  they  mine  be  preserved  fresh  for  a  long  time.  Thus 
a  glass  jar,  tumbler,  or  jam-pot,  the  top  of  which  has  been 
ground  to  receive  an  air-tight  glass  cover,  and  the  bottom 
covered  with  moist  white  sand,  will  keep  a  leaf  fresh  for  a 
week,  and  thus  a  larva  in  the  summer  will  have  to  be  fed 
but  two  or  three  times  before  it  changes  ;  and  the  moth  can 
be  seen  through  the  glass  without  taking  off  the  cover  ;  or 
a  glass  cylinder  can  be  placed  over  a  plant  inserted  in  wet 
sand,  having  the  top  covered  with  gauze.  Dr.  H.  G. 
Knaggs,  in  treating  of  the  management  of  caterpillars  in 
breeding-boxes,  enumerates  the  diseases,  besides  muscar- 
dine  and  cholerine  (and  we  might  add  pebrine),  to  which 
they  are  subject.  Among  direct  injuries  are  wounds  and 
bruises,  which  may  be  productive  of  deformities  in  the 
future  imago  ;  the  stings  of  ichneumon  flies,  whose  eggs 
laid  either  upon  or  in  the  body  may  be  crushed  with  finely 
pointed  scissors  or  pliers  ;  frost-bites ;  and  suffocation, 
chiefly  from  drowning.  If  the  caterpillar  has  not  been 
more  than  ten  or  twelve  hours  in  the  water,  it  may  be  re- 
covered by  being  dried  on  a  piece  of  blotting-paper  and  ex- 
posed to  the  sun.  Larvae  may  also  starve  to  death,  even 
when  food  is  abundant,  from  loss  of  appetite,  or  improper 
ventilation,  light,  etc. ;  or  they  may  eat  too  much,  become 
drojisical  and  die.     Caterpillars  undoubtedly  suffer  from  a 


*  "  In  general,  it  may  be  said,  the  mines  of  the  leaf -miners  are 
characteristic  of  the  genus  to  which  the  larva  may  belong.  A 
single  mine  once  identitied  enables  the  collector  to  pronotmce  on  the 
genus  of  all  the  species  he  may  lind  thereafter.  This,  added  to  the 
ease  with  which  the  larv«  are  collected,  and  the  little  subsequent  care 
required  to  bring  them  to  maturity,  except  to  keep  the  leaves  in  a 
fresh  and  healthy  .state,  makes  the  study  of  this  group,  in  every  respect, 
pleasant  and  satisfactory  to  the  entomologist."    (Clemens.) 


REARING  INSECTS.  257 

contagious  disease  analogous  to  low  fever.  Many  die  while 
moulting,  especially  the  larvge  of  butterflies,  sphinges,  and 
bombycids  ;  others  are  carried  off  by  diarrhoea,  which  is 
generally  caused  by  improper  feeding  on  too  juicy  or  relax- 
ing food,  when  oak  leaves  or  dry  stunted  foliage  should  be 
given  them.  To  relieve  constipation  they  should  be  fed 
with  lettuce  and  other  natural  purgatives  ;  and  lastly,  they 
may  be  attacked  by  fungi,  especially,  besides  those  previ- 
ously mentioned,  a  species  of  Oidium.  Such  patients  should 
be  put  in  direct  sunlight  or  dry  currents  of  air.  (Entomol- 
ogist's Monthly  Magazine,  June,  18G8.)  The  pupae  easily 
dry  up  ;  they  should  be  kept  moist,  in  tubes  of  glass  closed 
at  either  end,  through  which  the  moth  can  be  seen  when 
disclosed. 

In  setting  Micro-lepidoptera:  "  If  the  insect  is  very  small 
I  hold  it  by  its  legs  between  the  thumb  and  finger  of  the 
left  hand,  whilst  I  pierce  it  with  the  pin  held  between  the 
thumb  and  finger  of  the  right  hand  ;  if  the  insect  is  not 
very  small  I  use  a  rough  surface,  as  a  piece  of  blotting-paper 
or  piece  of  cloth,  for  it  to  lie  upon  and  prevent  its  slipping 
about,  and  then  cautiously  insert  the  point  of  the  pin  in  the 
middle  of  the  thorax,  as  nearly  as  possible  in  a  vertical  di- 
rection. As  soon  as  the  pin  is  fairly  through  the  insect,  re- 
move it  to  a  soft  piece  of  cork,  and,  by  pressing  it  in,  push 
the  insect  as  far  up  the  pin  as  is  required. 

"For  setting  the  insects  I  find  nothing  answers  as  well 
as  a  piece  of  soft  cork,  papered  with  smooth  paper,  and  with 
grooves  cut  to  admit  the  bodies.  The  wings  are  placed  in 
the  required  position  by  the  setting-needle,  and  are  then 
retained  in  their  places  by  a  wedge-shaped,  thin  paper 
brace,  placed  over  them  till  a  square  brace  of  smooth 
card-board  is  placed  over  the  ends  of  the  wings."  (Stain- 
ton.)  A  small  square  of  glass  can  also  be  laid  on  the  wings 
to  keep  them  expanded,  and  thus  serve  the  same  purpose  as 
the  paper  braces. 

Linnaeus  first  set  the  example  of  having  the  specific  names 
of  the  Tortricids  end  in  a7ia,  and  of  the  Tineids  in  ella;  and 


258  ENTOMOLOGY. 

at  the  present  day  the  rule  is  generally  followed  by  entomol- 
ogists, who  have  also  given  the  same  terminations  to  the 
names  of  the  smaller  species  of  Pyralides,  such  as  Pempelia, 
Crambus,  and  allied  genera. 

We  may  also  add  Lord  Walsingham's  directions  for  col- 
lecting Micro-lepidoptera,  published  in  the  "  American 
Naturalist"'  (vol.  vi.,  No.  5): 

"  I  go  out  with  a  coat  provided  with  large  pockets  inside  and  out, 
containing  an  assortment  of  pill-boxes  (generally  of  three  sizes, 
glass-bottomed  pill-boxes  preferred),  a  bag  slung  over  my  shoulder, 
and  a  net.  Unless  searching  for  particular  day -flying  species,  I  pre- 
fer the  last  three  hours  before  dark.  As  the  sun  goes  down,  many 
species  move  which  do  not  stir  at  other  times.  I  watch  the  tops  of 
the  grass,  the  stems  of  the  flowers,  the  twigs  of  the  trees  ;  I  disturb 
leaves  and  low-growing  plants  with  a  short  switch,  and  secure  each  lit- 
tle moth  that  moves,  taking  each  out  of  the  net  in  a  separate  pill-box, 
selected  according  to  the  size  of  the  insect,  as  he  runs  up  the  net  to 
escape.  Transferring  the  full  boxes  to  the  bag,  I  continue  the  pro- 
cess until  moths  cease  flying  or  night  sets  in.  Many  species  can  be 
taken  with  a  lamp  after  dark. 

"  Returning  to  camp,  I  put  a  few  drops  of  liquid  ammonia  on  a 
small  piece  of  sponge  and  place  it  in  a  tin  canister  with  such  of  the 
boxes  as  do  not  contain  the  smallest  species,  and  put  these  and  the 
remainder  away  until  morning  in  a  cool  place.  In  the  morning  I 
prepare  for  work  by  getting  out  a  pair  of  scissors,  a  pair  of  forceps, 
my  drying-box  containing  setting-boards,  a  sheet  of  white  paper, 
and  some  pins. 

"First,  I  cut  two  or  three  narrow  pieces  of  paper  from  three  to 
six  lines  wide,  or  rather  wider,  according  to  the  size  of  the  largest 
and  smallest  specimens  I  have  to  set.  I  then  double  each  of  these 
strips  and  cut  it  up  into  braces  by  a  number  of  oblique  cuts.  Now 
I  turn  out  the  contents  of  the  canister  and  damp  the  sponge  with  a 
few  drops  of  fresh  ammonia,  refilling  with  boxes  containing  live 
insects.  Those  which  have  been  taken  out  will  be  found  to  be  all 
dead  and  in  a  beautifully  relaxed  condition  for  setting.  Had  the 
smallest  specimens  been  placed  in  the  canister  overnight,  there 
woiild  have  been  some  fear  of  their  drying  up,  owing  to  the  small 
amount  of  moisture  in  their  bodies. 

"If  the  weather  is  very  hot  there  is  some  danger  of  killed  insects 
becoming  stiff  while  others  are  being  set,  in  which  case  it  is  better 
to  pin  at  once  into  a  damp  cork  box  all  that  have  been  taken  out  of 
17 


REARING  INSECTS.  259 

the  canister;  but  under  ordinary  circumstances  I  prefer  to  pin  them 
one  b}^  one  as  I  set  them. 

"  Taking  the  lid  off  a  box,  and  taking  the  box  between  the  finger 
and  thumb  of  the  right  hand,  I  roll  out  the  insect  on  the  top  of  the 
left  thumb,  supporting  it  with  the  top  of  the  foretiuger  and  so  ma- 
nipulating it  as  to  bring  the  head  pointing  towards  my  right  hand  and 
the  thorax  uppermost.  Now  I  take  a  pin  in  the  right  hand,  and  rest- 
ing the  tirst  joint  of  the  middle  linger  of  the  right  against  the  pro- 
jecting point  of  the  middle  finger  of  the  left  hand  to  avoid  unsteadi- 
ness, I  pin  the  insect  obliquely  through  the  thickest  part  of  the 
thorax  so  that  the  head  of  the  pin  leans  very  slightly  forward  over 
the  head  of  the  insect.  After  passing  the  pin  far  enough  through 
to  bring  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  out  below,*  I  pin  the  insect 
into  the  middle  of  the  groove  of  a  setting-board  so  that  the  edge  of 
the  groove  will  just  support  the  under  sides  of  the  wings  close  up  to 
the  body  when  they  are  raised  upon  it.  The  board  should  be  chosen 
of  such  a  size  as  will  permit  of  the  extension  of  the  wings  nearly  to 
its  outer  edge.  The  po.sition  of  the  pin  should  still  be  slanting  a 
little  forward.  The  wings  should  now  be  raised  into  the  position  in 
which  they  are  intended  to  rest,  wath  especial  care  in  doing  so  not 
to  remove  any  scales  from  the  surface  or  cilia  of  the  wings.  Each 
wing  should  be  fastened  with  a  brace  long  enough  to  extend  across 
both,  the  braces  being  pinned  at  the  thick  end,  so  that  the  head  of 
the  pin  slopes  away  from  the  point  of  the  brace ;  this  causes  the 
braces  to  press  more  firmly  down  on  the  wing  when  fixed.  The  insect 
should  be  braced  thus  :  the  two  braces  next  the  body  should  have  the 
points  upwards,  the  two  outer  ones  pointing  downwaids  and  slightly 
inwards  towards  the  bod^^  and  covering  the  main  portion  of  the  wings 
beyond  the  middle.  Antennae  should  be  carefully  laid  back  above 
the  wings,  and  braces  should  lie  flat,  exercising  an  even  pressure  at 
all  points  of  their  surface.  The  fore  wings  should  slope  slightly 
forwards  so  that  a  line  drawn  from  the  point  of  one  to  the  point  of 
the  other  will  just  miss  the  head  and  palpi.  The  hind  wings  should 
be  close  up,  leaving  no  intervening  space,  but  just  showing  the  upper 
angle  of  the  wing  evenly  on  each  side.  I  can  give  no  more  precise 
directions  as  to  how  this  desirable  result  may  most  simply  and 
speedily  be  attained  ;  no  two  people  set  alike.  Speed  is  an  object ; 
for  I  have  often  had  to  set  twelve  dozen  insects  before  breakfast.  A 
simple  process  is  essential,  for  a  man  who  is  alwa3's  pinning  and  mov- 

*  The  English  mode  of  pinning  low  down  on  a  short  pin  presents 
so  many  disadvantages  that  we  would  caution  collectors  to  pin  high 
up  on  a  long  German  pin  so  that  three-fourths  of  its  length  should 
project  below  the  body. — A.  S.  P. 


260  ENTOMOLOGY. 

iug  pins,  and  rearrauging  wiugs  and  legs,  is  sure  to  remove  a  certain 
number  of  scales  and  spoil  the  appearance  of  the  insect,  besides  ut- 
terly destroying  its  value.  1  raise  each  of  the  fore  wings  with  a  pin, 
and  fix  the  pin  against  the  inner  margin  so  as  to  keep  them  in  position 
while  I  apply  the  braces.  Half  the  battle  is  really  in  the  pinning. 
When  an  insect  is  pinned  through  the  exact  centre  of  the  thorax, 
with  the  pin  properly  sloped  forward,  the  body  appears  to  fall  natu- 
rally into  its  position  on  the  setting-board,  and  the  muscles  of  the 
wings,  being  left  free,  are  easily  directed  and  secured:  but  if  the  pin 
is  not  put  exactly  in  the  middle,  it  interferes  with  the  play  of  the 
wings.  Legs  must  be  placed  close  against  the  body  or  they  will  pro- 
ject and  interfere  with  the  set  of  the  wings.  Practice,  care,  and  a 
steady  hand  will  succeed.  When  all  the  insects  that  have  been  killed 
are  set,  the  contents  of  the  canister  will  be  found  again  ready,  twenty 
minutes  being  amply  sufficient  to  expose  to  the  fumes  of  ammonia. 
Very  bright  green  or  pale  pink  insects  should  be  killed  by  some 
other  process,  say  chloroform,  as  ammonia  will  affect  their  colors. 

"Insects  should  be  left  on  the  setting  boards  a  full  week  to  dry  ; 
then  the  braces  may  be  carefully  removed  and  they  may  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  store-box. 

"  Having  given  some  account  of  the  process  each  insect  goes 
through,  I  will  say  a  word  as  to  the  apparatus  required. 

"  First  as  to  nets.  The  simplest  net  is  a  strong,  circular  iron  wire 
hoop  with  a  bag  of  book-muslin  attached,  fastened  into  a  light  deal 
or  other  handle. 

"  I  use  a  small  pocket  net  about  nine  inches  in  diameter,  made  to 
fold  up,  with  a  jointed  wire  frame  and  a  screw  to  fit  into  a  brass 
socket  in  a  short  cane-handle.  To  counteract  the  strain  of  the  net 
upon  so  slight  a  frame  the  three  wire  joints  are  made  flat,  the  two 
side  joints  flattened  across  the  strain,  the  upper  one  the  reverse  way  ; 
but  to  prevent  this  upper  joint  from  coming  into  play  when  the 
net  is  fixed,  the  upper  part  of  the  screw  which  holds  the  frame  to  the 
handle  is  welded  square  and  fits  a  corresponding  square  socket  in  the 
other  end  of  the  wire  frame,  holding  all  tight  when  screwed  down. 
A  small  green  silk  or  other  net  can  be  slipped  on  or  off  this  frame  as 
required. 

"  An  umbrella  net  with  stout  steel  rim  and  canvas  edging  is  useful 
for  sweeping  tall  grass  and  herbage,  or  to  beat  branches  into,  by 
which  means  many  small  and  beautiful  species  of  retired  habits  may 
be  obtained. 

"  I  use  pill- boxes  with  glass  bottoms,  which  can  be  obtained  of  var- 
ious sizes.  Tliey  are  convenient  in  admitting  of  the  examination  of  each 
specimen,  so  rare  species  can  be  especially  searched  for,  and  damaged 
ones  permitted  to  escape ;  but  they  are  expensive,  and  for  ordinary 


hearino  insects.  261 

purposes  card-board  boxes  answer  siifficieutl}'  well.  It  is  a  good  plan 
at  the  beginning  of  a  season  tostreugtlicn  all  jour  boxes  by  a  crossed 
strap  of  tape  or  calico  firmly  glued  at  the  top  and  bottom.  For  a 
killing-box  any  tin  box  or  canister,  with  a  closely-fitting  lid,  capable 
of  containing  one  hundred  pill-boxes  will  be  found  to  answer. 

"  Setting-boards  can  be  bought  read3^-made  of  the  smallest  sizes. 
They  are  made  by  gluing  a  slrip  of  thick  cork  on  a  thin  slip  of  deal  ; 
the  cork  must  be  thick  enough  to  enable  a  groove  to  be  cut  into  it, 
deep  enough  to  hold  the  bodies  of  the  insects  to  be  set,  and  to  leave 
sufficient  depth  for  the  pin  to  hold  firmly  without  reaching  the  deal. 
The  cork  on  each  side  of  the  groove  should  be  smoothed  off  with  a 
gentle  curve,  so  that  the  wings  dry  in  a  good  position.  The  deal 
backing  projects  beyond  the  cork  so  as  to  slide  into  a  groove  if  re- 
quired, and  it  is  convenient  to  have  a  deal  cupboard  of  drying-boxes 
with  handle  at  top  and  perforated  zinc  door,  having  grooves  on  each 
side  into  which  the  setting-boards  can  be  slid.  Each  board  should 
be  papered  with  thin  white  pape'r. 

"At  the  beginning  of  a  season  setting-boards  may  be  washed  or 
brushed  over  with  advantage  with  a  weak  solution  of  oxide  of  zinc  ; 
it  fills  up  old  pinholes  and  makes  them  look  clean. 

"  Always  set  your  insects  as  soon  as  you  kill  them;  they  are  then 
much  more  easy  to  set,  and  retain  their  position  better  when  dry. 

"When  pill-boxes  are  filled,  keep  them  cool  to  prevent  the  insects 
from  fluttering  ;  if  glass  boxes,  keep  them  also  in  the  dark. 

"  Many  species  when  first  taken  will  flutter  in  the  boxes  and  injure 
themselves  ;  for  these  it  is  well  when  collecting  to  carry  a  small  phial 
of  chloroform  and  a  zinc  collecting-box,  cork-lined,  into  which  you 
can  at  once  pin  your  captures  ;  the  cork  should  be  damped  to  keep 
them  fresh.  Touching  a  pill-box  with  a  finger  moistened  with  chloro- 
form will  kill  the  insect  inside.  Too  much  chloroform  is  apt  to  stiflieu 
the  nerves  of  the  wings  and  interfere  with  setting. 

"By  breeding  Micro-lepidoptera,  many  species  not  otherwise  easily 
obtainable  may  be  added  to  a  collection,  and  the  habits  of  others  in 
the  larva  state  may  be  studied  with  much  interest.  For  this  purpose 
a  few  wide-mouthed  glass  bottles  should  be  obtained  with  corks  to 
fit,  so  that  the  small  larvte  can  be  placed  in  them  with  fresh  food  and 
the  food  kept  fresh  by  exclusion  of  air.  If  mould  should  appear,  the 
cork  can  be  replaced  by  muslin  or  a  net  tied  over.  I  would  hardly  ad- 
vise a  travelling  collector  to  attempt  this  method,  although  I  have 
adopted  it  with  some  success;  but  in  a  stationary  camp  it  is  most  inter- 
esting and  comparatively  easy. 

"  CJork-lined  store-boxes  are  of  course  required  into  which  to  re- 
move the  insects  when  sufficiently  dried  on  the  setting-boards.  These, 
as  well  as  the  pins  and  setting-boards  with  drying  case  to  hold  them. 


262  ENTOMOLOGT. 

and  llic  net  frames  of  the  folding  and  umbrella  patterns,  will  be  best 
obtained  from  some  dealer  in  such  things. 

"  To  pack  Micro-lepkhptera  for  travelling,  pin  them  firmly  close  to- 
gether into  a  cork-lined  box,  so  that  each  specimen  just  gently  holds 
down  the  body  of  the  one  above  it.  This  cannot  be  done  with  very 
minute  species.  Put  your  box  into  another  larger  box,  and  let  the 
outer  one  be  sutiiciently  large  to  leave  a  good  clear  six  inches  all 
around  the  inner  one.  Pack  this  intervening  space  with  hay,  not 
crammed  too  tight ;  it  will  act  as  a  spring  and  reduce  the  effect  of 
shaking;  the  whole  parcel  should  be  made  thoroughly  secure  against 
damp." 

In  collecting  Tortricids,  Prof.  C.  H.  Fernald,  the  best  au- 
thority on  this  famil}^  does  not  use  the  cyanide  bottle,  as  a 
roll  over  the  bottom  destroys  the  thoracic  tufts,  etc.,  but  he 
puts  the  moths  alive  into  pill-boxes.  They  can  then  be 
taken  home  and  killed  in  the  cyanide  bottle  or  with  chloro- 
form. In  pinning,  the  moth  should  not  be  touched  with 
the  thumb  and  finger,  but  should  be  handled  Avith  a  pair  of 
fine  forceps,  laid  upon  a  piece  of  pith  held  between  the 
thumb  and  finger,  and  the  pin  passed  through  the  thorax 
so  as  not  to  injure  the  thoracic  tuft.  He  prefers  for  the 
larger  species  japanned  pins,  and  for  the  smaller  ones  silver 
wire,  inserted  in  one  end  of  a  neatly-cut  piece  of  fungus, 
through  the  other  end  of  which  a  large  pin  may  be  thrust. 
(Can.  Ent.  x.  82.) 

The  following  excellent  directions  for  rearing  the  larvae 
of  Tortricidae,  by  Charles  G.  Barrett,  are  copied  from  the 
"Entomologist's  Monthly  Magazine,"  Jan.,  1883: 

"  There  is  no  great  difficulty  in  rearing  the  leaf-rolling  species  of  the 
genera  Tortrix.  Lozotfenia,  and  part  of  Poecilochroma  (of  Wilkinson's 
'  Tortrices'  and  Stainton's  '  Manual'),  nor  those  which  draw  together 
leaves  either  flatly  or  by  folding  or  spinning  several  together,  such  as 
Peronea  and  its  allies,  Phloeodes,  Poedisca,  Coccyx,  etc.,  because  they 
mostly  feed  on  the  comparatively  dry  and  firm  leaves  of  trees  or  bushes, 
and  are  in  consequence  but  little  subject  to  the  annoyance  of  mouldy 
food.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  put  the  rolled,  twisted,  or  joined 
leaves  containing  the  larvae  into  large  tins  or  gallipots,  closely  tied 
down  and  covered  with  glass,  and  to  open  them  daily  for  ventilation, 
supplying  fresh  food  when  necessary.     Particular  care,  however,  must 


REARING  LARV^  OF  TORTRICIDS.  263 

be  taken  never  to  introduce  any  food  in  a  damp  state,  from  either  dew 
or  rain,  or  mould  will  be  the  immediate  result.  These  species  will 
spin  up  among  their  food-plant,  and  emerge  in  many  cases  in  a  fort- 
night, in  all  cases  within  the  same  season.  The  few  species  in  these 
groups,  such  as  Tortrix  icterana  and  viburnana  and  (Eiiectra  pilleri- 
ana,  which  generally  feed  on  succulent  low-growing  plants,  should 
have  plenty  of  air,  not  being  covered  with  glass  unless  the  food  begins 
to  wither,  such  plants  becoming  very  quickly  rotten  if  covered  closely 
down.  This  is  also  the  case  with  the  curious  balls  of  j'oung  bramble 
leaves  twisted  up  by  the  larva  of  Notocelia  advmnniana. 

"  In  the  cases  of  the  very  numerous  species  which  feed  in  the  shoots 
of  shrubs  and  low  plants,  eating  out  the  young  leaves,  such  as  the 
larger  species  of  Antithesia,  Hypermecia,  Brachytsenia,  Pardia, 
Spilonota,  Hedya,  Steganoptycha,  parts  of  Paramesia,  Semasia,  and 
Poecilochroma,  much  judgment  must  be  used.  Where  the  shoots  are 
of  hard-leaved  bushes  and  plants,  and  the  larva  does  not  pack  its 
domicile  with  frass,  tins  or  gallipots  may  be  used  and  covered  with 
glass,  or  wholly  or  partially  uncovered,  as  seems  necessary  from  the 
state  of  the  weather  or  the  condition  of  the  food;  but  shoots  of  soft- 
leaved  low-growing  plants,  and  those  which,  as  in  the  case  of  Stega- 
noptycha ncevana,  are  apt  to  be  full  of  frass,  should  be  put  into  ordi- 
nary rough  flower-pots  and  tied  tightly  down  with  calico,  old  lining, 
or  any  close-textured  material  that  comes  to  hand.  These  pots  allow 
a  good  deal  of  evaporation,  and  if  dry  moss  is  introduced  it  will  also 
absorb  some  of  the  superfluous  moisture,  so  that  glass  may  be  laid 
either  completely  or  partially  over  these  also,  to  keep  the  food  from 
withering,  but  it  must  be  frequently  removed  and  the  food  stirred  up 
and  examined  and  prevented  from  becoming  mouldy  or  rotten.  The 
same  should  be  done  with  larvae  of  Sericoris,  some  of  which  feed  in 
flower-spikes  as  well  as  young  shoots,  and  are  therefore  still  more 
liable  to  injury  from  mould  or  decay.  But  of  all  the  low-plant  feed- 
ers the  most  difficult  by  far  to  rear  are  the  Sciaphiloe.  It  is  hardly 
possible  to  keep  the  solid  composite  flowers  in  which  S.  perterana  and 
8.  icteriana  feed  from  becoming  mouldy,  and  the  larvse  do  not  will- 
ingly move  to  fresh  flowers.  Perhaps  the  best  plan  is  to  tie  up  the 
infested  flowers  with  others  in  close  bunches,  so  that  air  can  get  round 
them,  and  then  tie  them  down  in  flower- pots.  The  shoots  and  curved 
leaves  in  which  virgaureana  and  other  species  feed  can  only  be  treated 
as  before  described.  But  the  difficulty  of  keeping  the  food  in  good 
condition  is  as  nothing  compared  to  the  difficulty  of  keeping  the  larvae 
in  any  sort  of  confinement.  They  seem  beyond  measure  impatient  of 
imprisonment,  and  as  soon  as  they  discover  the  least  closeness  in  the 
air,  or  change  of  condition  in  the  food,  begin  to  wander  round  the 
vessel,  and  try  by  every  possible  means  to  escape.     If  it  is  not  very 


264  ENTOMOLOGY. 

tightly  tied  down  they  force  their  way  under  the  string,  perfectly  in 
different  to  a  squeezing  that,  while  in  operation,  completely  flattens 
them;  and  if  the  string  is  too  tight,  they  will  force  their  way  between 
the  covering  and  the  pot,  or  into  the  smallest  fold,  and  there  die,  after 
reducing  themselves  to  the  thickness  of  brown  paper.  To  frustrate 
their  efforts  the  covering  must  be  of  strong  calico  or  cloth,  and  must 
be  tied  down  with  thin  siring,  which  must  be  wound  five  or  six  times 
round  the  pot  and  strained  tight  at  each  round,  and  the  covering  ma- 
terial then  pulled  tight.  No  larva  can  then  force  its  way  under  the 
string,  and  they  cannot  easily  get  between  the  calico  and  the  pot;  but, 
to  completely  prevent  this,  the  best  plan  appears  to  be  to  rub  a  little 
lard  or  other  form  of  grease  7-ound  the  edge  of  the  pot.  This  they 
detest,  and  will  not  willingly  touch,  and  it  does  seem  to  circumvent 
them.  If  by  these  devices  the  larvae  can  be  compelled  to  remain  in 
the  pot,  they  will  spin  up  among  the  food  plant  or  in  the  moss;  but 
so  much  sulkiness  remains  in  their  disposition  that  the  moths,  on 
emerging,  will  often  remain  among  the  rubbi.sh  at  the  bottom  until 
spoiled.  The  best  plan  is  to  examine  the  food  and  pick  out  the  pupae, 
which  do  well  if  placed  on  soft  material  in  a  chip  or  card  box.  If 
however,  when  full-fed,  the  larv*  are  allowed  to  force  their  way  with 
difficulty  out  of  the  pot,  they  appear  quite  satisfied,  and  will  spin  up 
in  the  first  available  place;  so  that  I  have  obtained  numerous  pupae 
by  simply  laying  a  squeezed-up  piece  of  gauze  or  leno,  or  even  some 
dry  moss,  loosely  on  the  top  of  the  pot. 

"  There  are  a  very  few  leaf-feeders,  such  as  Stigmonota  weirana  and 
8.  nitidana,  which  hibernate  in  a  cocoon  between  the  leaves  on  which 
they  have  fed.  These  give  little  trouble,  and  only  require  to  be  kept 
cool. 

"  The  species  of  the  genus  Retinia,  which  feed  in  fir-shoots,  are  tol- 
erably easy  to  rear  if  the  shoots  are  not  allowed  to  get  tco  dry,  as 
they  do  not  readily  become  mouldy,  and  the  larvae  will  move  freely 
to  fresh  shoots.  A  common  flower-pot  covered  with  glass  is  the  best 
for  them. 

"  Some  of  the  species  of  Ancbylopera,  which  feed  on  the  leaves  of 
shrubs  and  make  themselves  domiciles  in  which  to  pass  the  winter, 
are  rather  difficult  to  rear,  and  must  have  winter  exposure,  but  those 
which  feed  in  early  spring  on  clover,  etc.,  are  easily  managed. 

"Except  the  Sciaphilae,  no  Tortrix  larvae  are  so  hard  to  rear  as  the 
various  groups  of  seed-feeders.  There  certainly  are  exceptions,  such 
as  Antithesia  gentianana  and  marginana,  Asthenia  strobilella,  and 
Eupo&cilia  roseana,  which  obligingly  remain  in  their  respective  seed- 
heads  all  the  winter,  requiring  only  to  be  kept  cool  and  not  too  dry, 
and  not  even  needing  to  be  wintered  out  of  doors.  The  feeders  on 
Papilionaceous  seeds,  such  as  Stigmonota  orobana  and  dorsana,  after 


ttEAniNG  LARV^  OF  TORTRICIDS.  265 

leaving  the  seed-pods,  will  spin  their  tough  cocoons  on  rotten  vood  or 
calico,  and  may  also  be  wintered  indoors.  But  it  is  quite  otherwise 
with  the  genera  Catoptria,  Endopsia,  Carpocapsa,  and  parts  of  Gra- 
pholitha,  Semasia,  Eup(ecilia,  etc.  Most  of  these  feed  up  with  very 
great  rapidity,  becoming  full-fed  almost  before  the  parent  moths  have 
ceased  to  fly — say,  within  a  month  or  six  weeks  of  the  time  of  the  egg 
being  laid — and  remain  for  nine  or  ten  months  in  cocoon  in  the  larva 
state,  in  most  cases  leaving  their  food  and  spinning  up  among  debris, 
or  under  stones,  or  other  suitable  places.  Having  to  arrange  for  so 
long  a  repose,  it  is  natural  that  they  should  wish  to  choose  a  suitable 
and  comfortable  spot,  but  some  seem  unnecessarily  fastidious.  All 
that  I  have  recorded  of  the  restless,  obstinate,  and  suicidal  tendencies 
of  Sciaphila  larvae  applies  equally  to  these.  They  must  be  tied  down 
in  flower-pots  tightly,  and  the  covering  material  strained,  as  already 
suggested — not  omitting  to  grease  the  edge — and  when  they  find  that 
they  cannot  really  escape  they  may  generally  be  tempted  to  spin  up 
by  the  introduction  of  pieces  of  rotten  wood,  cork,  hollow  sticks, 
folded  paper  or  rag,  or  the  stems  of  their  food-plants.  Sometimes 
nothing  will  give  satisfaction;  and  the  larva?,  after  sulking  for  weeks, 
will  actually  dry  up  and  die  without  any  material  alteration  in  their 
appearance.  I  have  known  dozens  of  larvae  of  Catoptria  cemulana  to 
die  in  this  way  after  leaving  their  food — the  seeds  of  the  golden-rod. 
On  the  approach  of  winter,  the  pots  containing  larvae  of  any  of  these 
groups  must— the  hole  in  the  bottom  being  first  stopped,  so  as  to 
exclude  insect  foes,  but  allow  drainage— be  placed  in  the  open  air, 
exposed  to  the  influences  of  any  weather  that  may  come.  It  is  well 
to  look  at  them  occasionally,  lest  the  covering  ge*s  rotten  and  broken, 
or  the  pot  is  rolled  over  by  some  active  cat;  but,  making  allowance 
for  accidents,  larvae  kept  in  this  manner  out  of  doors  until  the  end  of 
April,  or  even  into  May,  will  generally  produce  a  fair  proportion  of 
moths. 

"The  internal,  stem,  and  root-feeding  species  require  very  various 
treatment.  The  succulent  stems  in  which  the  Halonotm  principally 
feed  require  to  be  kept  alive  in  moist  earth  until  the  larvae  are  full- 
fed;  and  care  must  afterwards  be  taken  that  the  stems  do  not  ferment 
from  lying  too  close  together,  or  dry  up  before  the  moths  emerge. 
The  species,  such  as  GrapholitJia  pupillana  and  the  Dicroramphae, 
which  feed  in  the  stems  of  harder  plants,  also  thrive  better  if  the 
roots  are  kept  in  moist  earth;  and  this  precaution  must,  of  course,  be 
taken  with  the  root-feeding  Euchromise,  Orthotaeniae,  and  Xantho- 
setiae.  Most  of  these  species  are  best  collected  in  the  spring,  as  the 
larvae  are  slow  feeders,  and  not  easily  discoverable  until  tolerably  well 
grown.    Most  of  them  turn  to  pupa  in  the  stems,  though  O.  pupillana 


266  ENTOMOLOGY. 

follows  the  custom  of  its  allies  in  wandering  away  and  spinning  up 
elsewhere. 

"  The  larvae  of  Antithesiafuliyanu,  A.  nigrimstana,  and  several  of 
the  Eupoecilise  and  Argyrolepife,  which  feed  in  the  soft  stems  of  low- 
growing  plants,  must  be  collected  in  the  autumn  before  the  dead  stems 
are  broken  and  scattered  by  the  winter  storms.  The  stems  must  be 
kept  fresh  in  moist  earth  until  they  naturally  die  down,  by  which  time 
the  larvae  have  generally  spun  up,  and  the  stems  may  then  be  kept  in 
pots,  jars,  or  even  bottles,  care  being  taken  that  they  do  not  get  either 
mouldy  or  too  dry,  and  will  do  as  well  in  a  cool  room  as  out  of  doors." 
Preserving  Micro-larvae  in  Alcohol. — Dr.  H.  Dewitz  mounts  the 
larvae  and  pupae  of  Micro-lepidoptera,  and  also  the  early  stages  of  other 
siiKill  insects,  in  the  following  way:  The  insects  are  put  into  a  bottle 
with  95  per  cent  alcohol.  Many  larvae  turn  black  in  alcohol,  but 
boiling  them  in  alcohol  in  a  test-tube  will  bleach  them.  They  may 
then  be  tiually  placed  in  glass  tubes  as  small  and  thin  as  possible, 
varying  from  0.003  to  0.006  metre  in  diameter,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  insects.  About  0.07  metre's  length  of  a  tube  is  melted  over  a 
spirit-lamp,  and  the  tube  filled  three-quarters  full  with  95  per  cent 
alcohol,  the  insects  placed  within,  and  the  contents  of  the  tube 
heated  at  the  end  still  open,  and  then  closed  by  being  pulled  out 
with  another  piece  of  glass  tubing.  After  the  glass  has  been  held  a 
few  minutes  in  the  hand  until  it  is  slightly  cooled  off,  the  end  closed 
last  is  once  more  held  over  the  lamp,  so  that  the  points  may  be 
melted  together,  and  this  end  of  the  glass  may  be  finished.     During 

the  whole  time  from   the 
closure  of  the  tube  until  the 
complete    cooling    of    the 
(Ste>  (Tgaa  (!»!!>  <aifly  ""^V  V^        glass,  it  should  be  held  ob- 

liquely in  the  hand,  so  that 
the  alcohol  may  not  wet  the 
Fig.  2r2.-Method  of  preserving  minute  larvee,  upper  end;  for  if  the  tube  is 
etc.-After  Dewitz.  too  full,  it  is  difficult  to  melt 

it,  as  the  steam  quickly  ex- 
panding breaks  through  the  .softened  mass  of  glass.  The  tube  may 
])e  mounted  by  boring  a  hole  through  a  cork  stopper  of  the  same 
diameter  as  the  glass.  The  stopper  is  cut  into  the  shape  of  a  cube, 
a  strong  insect-pin  put  through  it,  and  the  glass  tube  inserted  into 
the  hole.  It  can  then  be  pinned  in  the  insect  box  or  drawer,  near 
the  imago,  so  that  the  free  end  of  the  glass  may  touch  the  bottom, 
while  the  other  end  stands  up  somewhat;  while  to  keep  the  tube  in 
place  the  free  end  resting  on  the  bottom  may  be  fastened  with  two 
strong  insect-pins.  The  specimens  thus  put  up  can  be  easily  exam- 
ined with  a  lens,  and  if  they  need  to  be  taken  out  for  closer  exami- 


BLOWING   CATERPILLARS.  2G7 

Aa\icu,  tLe  tube  can  be  opened  and  closed  again  after  a  little  prac- 
tice (Deutsche  Ent.  Zeits.,  xxxi.,  1887,  heft  1). 

Preserving  Larvae  Dry. — A  good  method  of  preserving 
larvae  dry,  adopted  at  Dresden,  is  to  squeeze  out  the  in- 
testines through  a  hole  made  near  the  anal  extremity  of  the 
larva,  then  to  insert  a  fine  straw,  after  which  it  may  he  put 
in  a  glass  vase,  which  is  placed  in  a  tin  vessel  and  held  over  a 
lamp;  the  larval  skin  is  blown  while  suspended  over  the 
lamp,  by  which  the  skin  dries  faster.  It  may  be  done  with 
a  small  tube  or  blow-pipe  fixed  at  the  end  of  a  bladder, 
held  under  the  arm  or  between  the  knees,  so  as  to  leave  the 
hands  at  liberty;  and  the  straw  which  is  inserted  into  the 
body  of  the  larva  may  be  fastened  by  a  cross-pin  stuck 
through  the  skin,  and  thus  retained  in  its  proper  position 
throughout  the  process  of  blowing,*  M.  P.  Chretien,  of 
Paris,  who  has  had  wide  experience  in  preparing  caterpil- 
lars, writes  me  describing  his  method  of  emptying  larvae  as 
follows:  It  is  sufi&cient  to  make  with  the  point  of  a  pair  of 
scissors  a  very  small  cut  in  the  anus  of  the  caterpillar, 
between  the  last  pair  of  legs;  then  to  extend  the  caterpil- 
lar upon  a  piece  of  old  linen  for  the  purpose  of  soaking  up 
the  fluids  of  the  larva;  then  to  press  the  caterpillar,  begin- 

*  Mr.  F.  A.  Wachtel  fastens  the  skin  to  the  fine  point  of  a  glass  tube 
in  blowing,  and  by  this  method  the  last  abdominal  segment  preserves 
its  form.  His  method  is  described  and  the  apparatus  figured  in  the 
Bulletin  of  the  Brookl^^n  Entomological  Society,  i.  94.  See  also 
"  Scudder's  Butterflies"  (H.  Holt  &  Co.);  Can.  Ent.  vi.  107;  or  Amer. 
Nat.,  viii.  321.  For  the  serious  study  of  larvse,  alcoholic  specimens 
should  supplement  the  blown  ones;  for  in  many  caterpillars,  notably 
the  Geometrids,  the  characters  of  the  anal  legs  and  supra-anal  plates  » 
(distorted  or  lost  in  blown  specimens)  are  only  to  be  observed  in  living 
or  alcoholic  examples.  Mr.  A.  "W.  P.  Kramer,  after  drawing  out  the 
intestines,  etc.,  takes  those  protruding  parts  between  his  fingers  and 
inserts  the  point  of  a  finely  drawn-out  glass  tube  till  it  enters  the  vent 
two  or  three  millimetres,  then  secures  the  intestine  to  the  tube  with  a 
thread,  and  makes  the  juncture  air-tight  with  a  little  collodion.  He 
then  fills  the  larva  with  air,  and  lets  it  dry  for  from  one  to  six  days. 
The  advantages  claimed  for  this  process  are  that  no  heat  is  required, 
and  that  one  has  greater  facilities  for  giving  the  larva  a  natural  posi- 
tion. The  air-pressure  can  be  obtained  witli  a  toy  red-rubber  balloon. 
Bull.  Brooklyn  Ent.  Soc,  vii.  93. 


268  ENTOMOLOGY. 

niug  at  the  head,  by  means  of  a  little  glass  roller,  or  even 
a  pencil  or  pen-handle;  then,  by  rolling  the  caterpillar's 
body,  all  the  contents  may  be  pressed  out;  this  process 
may  be  aided  by  drawing  out  the  parts  with  fine  pincers. 
He  also  suggests  that  the  empty  skins  of  larvae,  if  placed 
in  alcohol  of  a  strength  of  48°,  may  be  sent  by  mail  from 
one  country  to  another,  or  preserved  for  a  few  weeks  and 
then  blown.  Blown  specimens  need  only  to  be  protected 
from  the  attacks  of  museum-pests  and  from  dampness. 
Small  larvae,  such  as  those  of  the  Micros,  may  be  put  alive 
into  a  hot  bottle,  baked  until  they  swell  to  the  proper  ex- 
tent and  dry,  when  they  can  be  pinned  with  all  their  con- 
tents inside. 

Bleaching  the  Wings  for  the  Study  of  the  Venation. — In 
order  to  study  the  venation  of  the  wings  of  butterflies  and 
the  larger  moths,  we  usually  remove  the  scales  with  a  stiff 
camel's-hair  brush,  and  then  the  venation  can  be  drawn 
under  a  2|-  or  4-inch  objective  with  the  aid  of  the  camera 
lucida,  and  an  exact  sketch  be  made.  Others  prefer  to 
*' bleach"  the  wings  by  caustic  alkaline  solutions.  Dr. 
Dimmock,  however,  suggests  a  modification  of  the  chlorine 
bleaching  process,  commonly  employed  in  cotton  bleacher- 
ies.  After  soaking  the  wings  for  a  few  moments  in  pure 
alcohol,  in  order  to  dissolve  the  oily  matter  in  them,  they 
can  be  removed  to  a  solution  of  common  bleaching-powder, 
which  is  sold  as  ''chloride  of  lime,"  but  which  is  really  a  mix- 
ture of  calcic  hypochlorite,  calcic  chloride,  and  calcic  hy- 
drate. Ten  parts  of  water  dissolve  the  first  two  compounds, 
leaving  nearly  all  the  third  suspended  in  the  solution,  which 
should  be  made  with  cold  water,  filtered,  and  kept  in  a 
tightly-corked  bottle  till  required  for  use.  After  the  color 
has  sufficiently  disappeared  from  the  wings,  they  should  be 
transferred  to  a  wash  composed  of  one  part  of  strong  hy- 
drochloric acid  to  ten  parts  of  water.  The  wings  may  then 
be  gummed  on  cards,  or  upon  glass  by  the  proper  transfers 
through  alcohol  and  chloroform  to  Canada  balsam. 

A  solution  of  sodic  hypochlorite,  known  as  eau  de  La- 


MOUNTING   WINGS  OF  MOTHS.  269 

harraque,  or  a  solution  of  potassic  hypochlorite,  known  as 
ecm  de  JaveUe,  enables  one  to  dispense  with  the  wash  of 
dilute  acid.  "  These  bleaching  processes  preserve  the  most 
delicate  wings  unbroken;  and  when  the  specimens  are  of  rare 
species,  rubbed  wings  can  be  used,  the  absence  of  the  scales 
not  being  evident  after  bleaching"  {Psyche,  i.  97).  Legs 
and  other  parts  of  insects  may  be  treated  in  the  same  way. 

Mr.  Chambers  suggests  (Can.  Ent.  viii.  39),  for  Micros, 
placing  the  wing  upon  a  glass  microscope-slide  in  from  one 
to  three  or  four  drops  of  a  strong  solution  of  potash,  and 
after  putting  a  cover-glass  over  the  wing,  holding  the  slide 
over  a  flame  until  it  begins  to  boil,  removing  it  at  the  first 
sign  of  ebullition,  when  the  wing  will  be  found  to  be  de- 
nuded; it  may  then  be  drawn  with  the  camera,  and  after- 
wards mounted  for  permanent  preservation. 

Mounting  the  Wings  of  Microlepidoptera. — Prof.  C.  H. 
Fernald  mounts  the  wings  of  Microlepidoptera  in  cold  glycer- 
ine ;  after  having  been  bleached  by  Dimmock's  method 
(which,  for  bleaching,  is  to  be  recommended),  the  wings 
are  transferred  to  the  slide  direct  from  the  water  in  which 
they  are  washed,  then  allowed  to  dry  (sometimes  hastened 
by  holding  the  slide  over  the  flame  of  a  lamp);  and,  when 
quite  dry,  a  drop  of  glycerine  is  to  be  added,  and  the  cover 
at  once  put  on.  When  the  glycerine  has  penetrated  around 
the  edges  so  as  to  completely  saturate  portions  of  the  wing, 
the  scales  at  once  become  transparent,  and  the  structure  is 
clearly  apparent. 

By  holding  the  slide  over  the  lamp  till  ebullition  takes 
place,  the  glycerine  will  be  found  to  replace  the  air  under 
the  concave  portions  of  the  wings,  without  any  injury  to 
the  structure;  and  even  in  those  refractory  cases  where  the 
glycerine  has  been  allowed  to  boil  for  a  considerable  length 
of  time,  no  injury  was  found  to  be  done  to  the  wing-mem- 
brane.    (Amer.  Month.  Micr.  Journ.,  i.  [1880]  p.  172.) 

Mounting  the  Wings  of  Macro  lepidoptera. — Dr.  11.  Dewitz  of  Berlin 
removes  the  colors  and  scales,  for  the  purpose  of  study iug  the 
venation,  by  means  of  eau  de  Javelle,  cutting  off  both  wings  on  one 


270  ENTOMOLOGY. 

side  close  to  the  body  and  placing  them  in  the  fluid.  It  is  well  to 
soak  them  beforehand  in  alcohol,  as  saturation  by  the  eai:  de  Javelle 
will  then  take  place  much  more  quickly.  Then  as  soon  as  the  wings 
lose  their  color,  so  that  the  venation  is  plainly  perceived,  they  are 
soaked  in  water  for  an  hour.  A  glass  slide  is  then  pushed  under  the 
wings  and  they  are  lifted  out  of  the  water.  This  is  done  so  as  to 
make  the  upper  and  lower  wings  lie  close  together  in  the  middle  of 
the  slide,  which  is  then  dried.  The  bases  of  large  wings  can  be 
fastened  with  a  drop  of  warm  liquid  solution  of  isinglass.  After  the 
wings  are.  entirely  dry,  a  thin  rectangular  piece  of  glass,  somewhat 
larger  than  the  extent  of  the  wings,  is  placed  over  them.  According 
to  the  thickness  of  the  wings,  very  slender  strips  of  cardboard  or 
pasteboard  may  be  so  glued  to  the  slide  as  to  make  a  square 
frame,  thus  forming  a  cell  to  hold  the  wings. 

He  imbeds  small  wings  in  Canada  balsam,  by  dropping  the  balsam 
on  the  wings  and  covering  them  with  a  thin  glass,  such  as  is  used  by 
microscopists.  The  slide  thus  prepared  should  lie  horizontally  for  a 
few  months,  and  then  be  preserved  in  a  box  made  to  hold  such 
slides,  those  made  for  holding  ordinary  microscopic  slides  serving 
for  the  preparations  of  wings  of  Lepidoptera  of  medium  size.  (En- 
tomologische  Nachrichten,  1887,  pp.  164,  165.) 

To  Remove  Grease — Mr.  Henry  Edwards  removes  grease 
from  moths  and  butterflies  by  submerging  them  in  a  vessel 
of  ether  for  twelve  hours;  then  taking  the  insect  out  and 
draining  off  the  ether,  he  places  the  butterfly  on  plaster-of- 
Paris  powder  for  twelve  hours,  after  which  time  the  powder 
is  blown  off  and  the  insect  is  reset. 

Mr.  Ph.  Fischer  places  greasy  specimens  in  a  fluid  com- 
posed of  one  part  of  ether  to  two  of  the  strongest  alcohol, 
leaving  them  therein  for  about  twenty-four  hours.  After 
being  taken  out  and  dried,  they  are  spread.  Where  only  the 
wings  are  oily,  the  specimen  is  put  on  the  spreading-board, 
under  side  up,  without  fastening  it  in  any  way,  and  the  pur- 
est spirits  of  turpentine  poured  on  it  to  fully  soak  the  wings, 
after  which  finely-powdered  pipe-clay  is  strewn  thickly 
over  the  affected  parts,  and  this  left  to  dry.  Should  the 
clay,  after  becoming  dry,  be  yellow,  the  oil  is  not  all  out  of 
the  wings,  and  the  process  must  be  repeated.  To  remove 
the  clay,  hold  the  specimen  on  the  upper  part  of  the  pin, 
and  give  the  pin  a  little  jerk  near  the  point,  and  the  clay. 


COLLECTING  BEETLES.  271 

being  brittle,  will  easily  fall  off;  after  it  is  all  removed,  the 
specimen  may  be  brushed  with  a  fine  camel's-hair  brush 
until  clean.  Specimens  treated  in  these  ways  will  never 
again  become  oily.     (Can.  Ent.,  xviii.  78.) 

Collecting  and  Preserving  Coleoptera. 

Beetles  should  be  pinned  for  the  cabinet  through  the 
right  wing-cover  (Fig.  266).  They  are  found  in  every  variety 
of  situation  :  on  plants,  in  decomposing  animal  and  vege- 
table matter,  in  mushrooms,  under  bark  of  trees,  under 
stones,  especially  in  moist  and  shady  situations  ;  many  are 
found  creeping  on  the  ground,  in  desert  and  other  arid 
spots  in  western  America.  Some  are  attracted  by  candles  at 
night ;  a  lighted  candle  may  be  fastened  in  a  piece  of  glass 
tube  just  above  a  funnel,  the  lower  extremity  of  which  ends 
in  a  bottle  of  alcohol.  By  using  a  piece  of  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium in  place  of  the  alcohol  in  the  bottle,  other  insects  may 
be  captured  (such  a  trap  may  be  set  out  through  a  still 
night  for  moths).  A  similar  apparatus  has  been  used  with 
success  in  collecting  beetles  in  fungi,  the  latter  being  held 
over  a  funnel  and  rapped  a  few  times,  causing  the  beetles 
to  run  out  and  drop  into  the  mouth  of  the  funnel  and 
thence  into  the  bottle  ;  while  others  (in  all  parts  of  the 
country)  fly  actively  on  being  approached  and  light  again 
on  the  ground  a  few  paces  off. 

Mr.  F.  G.  Schaupp  collects  on  the  sandy  banks  of  rivers 
large  numbers  of  small  ground-beetles,  by  pouring  Avater 
over  the  small  holes  in  the  sand  and  on  the  plants  growing 
at  the  edge  of  the  water  ;  this  causes  them  to  run  out  of 
their  retreats  by  the  hundreds.  Clivina  and  Dyschirius 
live  in  holes  in  the  sand,  Omophron  and  Heterocerus  under 
the  plants,  the  rest  hide  under  the  small  stones  on  the 
banks.  He  also  cuts  out  pieces  of  turf  by  the  water's  edge 
and  places  them  in  water,  thus  collecting  both  beetles  and 
their  larvae  and  pupaB. 

Burying-beetles  may  be  attracted  by  placing  small  pieces 


272  ENTOMOLOGY. 

of  meat  under  stones,  boards,  etc. ;  this  is  a  more  pleasant 
way  of  collecting  them  than  by  turning  over  carrion.  Mr. 
Schaupp  also  collects  coprophagous  beetles  (Hister,  Apho- 
dius,  and  StaphyHnids)  by  shovelling  the  dung  of  cows, 
horses,  sheep,  etc.,  into  a  pail  of  water  ;  the  dung  sinks, 
and  in  a  few  moments  the  insects  living  in  it  rise  to  the 
surface  and  are  easily  captured. 

An  excellent  trap  for  small  Silphids,  Catops,  Colon,  etc., 
is  made  by  putting  a  rabbit's  foot  or  any  similar  object  in 
an  ale  bottle,  and  burying  it  up  to  the  mouth  in  earth. 
These  small  nocturnal  species  will,  in  the  pursuit  of  the 
odor-giving  food,  fall  into  the  bottle,  from  which  they  can 
not  escape  (LeConte).  This  is  also  an  indispensable  method 
to  follow  in  collecting  cave-beetles. 

"  Many  peculiar  species,  not  found  in  other  situations, 
live  under  material  cast  up  by  the  ocean  ;  others  are  found 
along  the  shores  of  lakes  and  rivers ;  many  also  are  found 
living  in  the  water."     (LeConte.) 

Mr.  Edward  Newman  says  that  '^moss  is  a  great  resort 
of  beetles  in  the  winter ;  whenever  you  have  the  opportun- 
ity, go  into  the  thickest  woods,  and  pulling  up  the  moss  by 
handfuls  cram  it  into  a  canvas  bag,  which  you  have  taken 
with  you  for  this  especial  object.  Tlien  on  a  winter's  day, 
when  nothing  tempts  you  abroad,  shake  out  your  moss,  bit 
by  bit,  on  a  white  cloth,  and  you  will  soon  possess  yourself 
of  wonders." 

"  A  large  number  of  species  are  very  minute,  and  are 
usually  found  in  abundance  ;  these  should  not  be  neglected, 
as  to  scientific  men  they  possess  quite  as  much  interest  as 
the  larger  species.  The  specimens  should  be  thrown  into 
strong  alcohol ;  if  this  cannot  be  procured,  common  whiskey 
Avill  answer  very  well,  but  must,  when  the  specimens  are 
numerous,  be  replaced  by  fresh  liquor.  The  smaller  speci- 
mens should  be  kept  in  a  separate  bottle.  Whea  the  bottle 
is  full,  the  liquor  should  be  pouretl  off  and  replaced  by 
fresh  alcohol  or  whiskey,  and  closely  corked.  If  there  is 
much  danger  of  breaking  in  transportation,  the  specimens, 


COLLECTING  BEETLES.  273 

after  being  well  soaked  with  the  alcohol,  may  be  allowed  to 
dry  partially,  but  not  so  as  to  become  brittle,  and  then 
packed  in  small  pasteboard  boxes,  taking  care,  by  shaking 
the  box  well  before  finally  closing  it,  to  pack  the  specimens 
so  closely  that  they  cannot  be  broken  by  moving  about ; 
the  box  may  then  be  closed  by  pasting  a  small  strip  of 
paper  around  it,  and  the  locality,  date  of  collection,  etc., 
written  on  the  top."     (LeConte.) 

We  copy  from  a  chapter  on  collecting  Coleoptera,  by 
Edward  Newman,  in  Greene's  "  Insect  Hunter's  Compan- 
ion" (London,  1870),  an  account  of  Mr.  Crotch's  plan  of 
killing  and  preserving  beetles,  of  especial  use  while  on  a 
long  journey. 

"  The  following  method  has  now  been  in  use  some  time,  and  hence 
has  been  fairly  tested.  Its  advantages  are  very  great,  so  that  I  make 
no  apology  for  introducing  it  to  the  notice  of  your  readers.  The  first 
idea  of  the  process  is  due,  as  far  as  I  know,  to  M.  de  Vuille-froi,  who 
used  it  with  me  in  Spain,  some  years  ago,  with  great  success.  The 
specimens  may  be  collected  in  two  ways,  according  to  the  size  and 
the  convenience  of  the  collector.  The  first  and  best  way,  for  small 
species,  is  by  putting  them  into  a  bottle  containing  about  half  an  inch 
of  dry  pine-sawdust,  in  which  has  been  previously  placed  a  small 
piece  of  C5'anide  of  potassium  about  as  big  as  a  pea;  they  will  then 
die  instantly.  Larger  species  and  small  species  which  do  not  fly  read- 
ily may  be  put  into  spirits  in  the  ordinary  way,  but  the  Staphylinidce 
and  others  generally  open  their  wings  in  this  process.  The  sawdust 
should  be  pine-wood  and  sifted  free  from  chips  on  the  one  hand  and 
from  dust  on  the  other,  so  as  to  be  of  an  uniform  size.  For  storing 
the  species  thus  collected,  a  few  tin  canisters  will  be  found  most  con- 
venient; a  layer  of  sawdust  is  placed  at  the  bottom,  and  then  beetles, 
and  so  on  alternately  to  the  top.  The  sawdust  used  in  the  tins  should 
be  damped  (not  wetted)  with  a  mixture  of  spirit  and  one-tweuticfu 
part  of  carbolic  acid,  which  will  effectually  prevent  mould  or  mites 
and  will  bring  the  specimens  home  perfectly  fresh  and  clean.  Smr.il 
species,  or  specimens  from  a  particular  locality,  should  be  wrapped 
in  a  piece  of  rag  or  tissue-paper,  with  a  little  sawdust,  and  the  name 
of  the  locality.  The  specimens  collected  in  spirits  should  be  removed 
as  soon  as  possible  (in  a  few  days  at  farthest),  and  transferred  to  saw 
dust.  When  the  tins  are  full,  some  more  spirit  and  carbolic  acid 
should  be  poured  in  and  the  top  soldered  down  :  they  will  then  keep 
18 


374  ENTOMOLOGY. 

for  two  years  at  least.  The  advantages  of  this  method  are  manifest, 
especially  in  the  absence  of  any  danger  of  breakage  or  leakage;  and 
it  is  more  than  probable  that  a  similar  plan  might  be  employed  with 
reptiles,  fishes,  etc. ,  but  for  these  chloride  of  zinc  suggests  itself  as 
the  agent  most  likely  to  be  of  service.  As  the  insects  do  not  become 
rotten  by  the  above  process,  it  is  sometimes  not  so  easy  to  set  their 
legs  in  the  peculiar  manner  in  vogue  in  this  country,  but  they  will 
have  as  a  set-oif  the  advantage  of  being  thoroughly  fit  for  study. 
When  by  any  chance  spirit  cannot  be  obtained,  they  will  keep  per- 
fectly in  dry  sawdust,  if  the  specimens  are  dried  in  the  air  for  a  few 
hours  first;  all  that  is  necessaiy  afterwards  being  to  relax  them  in  the 
sawdust  instead  of  removing  them  from  it.  Jars  or  wide-mouthed 
pickle-bottles  may  of  course  be  used  instead  of  tins,  and  are  more 
air  tight,  but  liable  to  break."  • 

"That  eminent  and  most  excellent  entomologist,  Mr.  E.  W.  Jan- 
son,  indorses  Mr.  Crotch's  recommendation,  and  adds  a  few  hints  on 
the  subject  of  collecting  beetles  abroad,  as  follows  : 

"  '  The  sawdust  plan,  now  almost  universally  adopted  by  ccllectors, 
I  can  recommend  both  on  account  of  its  simplicity  and  efficiency. 
The  sawdust  should  be  that  of  some  white  or  yellow  wood  without 
coloring  matter — pine  is  perhaps  the  best;  it  should  be  sifted  over  fine 
muslin,  and  the  dust  and  minute  particles  rejected.  In  collecting, 
wide-mouthed  bottles  .should  be  used;  these  should  be  about  one  fourth 
filled  with  dry  sawdust,  adding  beneath  a  piece  of  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium of  the  size  of  a  large  pea  or  haricot  bean.  On  reaching  home 
after  collecting,  the  contents  of  the  collecting  bottles  should  be  shaken 
out  on  a  large  sheet  of  paper,  and  the  insects  transferred  to  the  stock- 
bottle  or  jar,  and  the  cyanide  and  sawdust  returned  to  the  collecting- 
bottles  for  future  use.  Any  description  of  wide-mouthed  bottles, 
such  as  pickle  jars,  may  be  used  as  stock-bottles;  they  should,  how- 
ever, have  tightly-fitting  corks  or  rungs.  Before  putting  the  insects 
collected  into  the  stock-bottle,  throw  into  it  sawdust  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  in  thickness,  slightly  damped,  not  moistened,  with  a  mixture  made 
of  alcohol  (methyla'ted  spirit  will  answer  admirably;  brandy  or  strong 
whiskey,  if  unsweetened,  will  suffice,  but  sweetened  gin  and  rum 
must  be  avoided),  or,  still  better,  benzine  or  benzoline,  and  carbolic 
or  phenic  acid.  These  should  be  mixed  in  the  proportions  of  nine- 
teen parts  of  alcohol  or  benzine  and  one  part  of  carbolic  acid.  On 
the  sawdust  damped  with  thi3  mixture  place  a  layer  of  insects  ;  over 
them  a  second  stratum  of  damped  sawdust,  then  a  second  layer  of 
insects,  and  so  on  alternately  until  the  stock-bottle  or  jar  is  tilled; 
take  care  that  it  is  always  kept  well  closed.  When  it  is  filled  it  may 
be  packed  with  any  other  objects  in  sawdust,  hay,  moss,  or  any  other 
elastic  substance,  and  forwarded  to  its  destination.'  " 


COLLECTING  BEETLES.  275 

Special  attention  should  be  given  to  the  collection  of  the 
larvae  of  beetles,  called  grubs.  They  are  found  in  soil,  un- 
der the  bark  of  trees,  in  nuts,  etc.,  and  in  fresh- water 
pools. 

A  ready  method  of  collecting  beetles,  etc.,  in  autumn, 
winter,  or  early  spring,  is  to  sift  the  leaves  collected  in  hol- 
lows in  the  ground  and  near  the  edge  of  woods.  Mr.  II. 
Schmelter  uses  a  sieve  consisting  of  a  wire  ring  of  about  one 
foot  in  diameter,  to  which  a  bag  of  coarse  muslin  of  about 
the  same  length  is  sewed,  the  bottom  of  which  is  formed  of 
a  piece  of  brass-wire  cloth  about  10  inches  in  diameter, 
and  with  spaces  about  5  mm.  square.  The  sifting  can  be 
done  over  a  sheet  of  white  muslin  or  paper  or,  better,  by 
placing  the  sieve  in  a  bag  1\  feet  in  length,  fastened  to  a 
ring  of  the  size  of  that  of  the  sieve.  The  sifted  matter  will 
fall  into  the  outer  bag,  and  can  be  examined  at  one's  con- 
venience.* 

Wood-boring  beetles,  such  as  longicorns,  etc.,  may  be 
captured,  says  Sclmielter,  often  in  large  numbers,  by  saw- 
ing off  the  dead  branches  of  trees  in  spring,  gathering 
plants  with  pithy  stems,  such  as  the  elder,  reeds,  etc.,  and 
piling  up  these  materials  in  an  empty  room  with  the  door 
and  windows  tightly  closed,  the  latter  best  made  of  wire 
screen,  so  as  to  admit  of  a  free  circulation  of  air.  "  If  a 
special  room  for  this  purpose  is  not  at  one's  disposal,  a 
large  box  connected  with  a  small  one,  of  which  several  sides 
should  be  made  of  glass,  will  answer.  The  insects,  after 
having  made  their  way  out  of  the  wood  during  spring  and 
summer,  will  be  attracted  by  the  light  to  the  windows  of 
the  room  or  into  the  smaller  box,  and  there  be  easily  cap- 
tured."    (Bull.  Brooklyn  Ent.  Soc,  i.  33.) 

A  writer  in  ' '  The  Entomologist "  (London)  finds  that 
•coarse  tufts  of  grass  which  are  to  be  found  in  almost 
every  field  "are  very  productive  if  cut  round  with  a  sharp 
knife,  lifted  gently,  and  then  inverted  and  shaken  over 

*  Bull.  Brooklyn  Ent.  Soc,  i.  17. 


276  ENTOMOLOGY. 

paper."  This  work  can  be  done  in  the  autumn  and  early 
spring,  as  the  tufts  are  favorite  hibernating  places,  Staphy- 
linidse  most  commonly  taking  refuge  in  them. 

Beetles  may  be  kept  soft  and  flexible  so  as  to  be  sent 
through  the  mail  in  boxes  without  being  pinned  and  with- 
out danger  of  breaking,  by  being  prepared  in  the  following 
manner,  as  recommended  by  Mr.  J.  B.  Smith.  They 
should  be  soaked  for  a  week  or  more  in  a  fluid  composed 
of  100  grams  of  alum,  25  of  salt,  12  of  saltpetre,  60  of 
potash,  and  10  of  white  arsenic  dissolved  in  3000  grams  of 
boiling  water.  This  solution  should  be  filtered,  and  when 
cold  add  to  every  ten  parts,  four  of  glycerine  and  one  of 
methyl  alcohol.     {Psyche,  iv.  140.) 

Rearing  Tiger  and  Ground  Beetles — Mr.  F.  G.  Schaupp, 
who  had  good  success  in  raising  tiger  and  ground  beetles 
from  the  larva,  pursued  the  following  method:  For  Cicin- 
delae  he  made  a  box  of  wood  (2xl|xl  foot),  with  openings 
covered  by  glass  and  woven  wire,  such  as  is  used  for  fine 
screens,  and  filled  it  with  sand  half  a  foot  deep,  making 
here  and  there  a  few  miniature  hills,  and  in  the  middle  of 
the  box  a  valley,  in  which  he  placed  a  fiat  tin  pan  filled 
with  water,  while  at  the  two  sides  he  placed  pieces  of  turf 
to  represent  a  meadow.  He  fed  the  larvae  with  different 
kinds  of  soft  grubs,  such  as  those  of  small  Chrysomelids 
{Criocerus  asparagi  and  Diabrotica,  etc.),  and  kept  the 
Cicindela  beetles  for  over  two  months,  when  they  mated  and 
dug  holes  in  the  sand  ;  in  srch  a  box  the  eggs  may  be  laid 
and  the  larvae  reared.  For  raising  beetles  from  the  eggs 
he  also  used  boxes  6f  zinc,  tlie  two  longer  sides  and  the 
cover  of  glass,  the  two  smaller  sides  of  wire  cloth.*  He 
succeeded  in  obtaining  larvas  from  Cucujus  clmnpes.  He 
fed  the  beetles  and  larvte  with  sugar-water,  with  which  he 
soaked  small  thin  pieces  of  wood.  The  species  of  Cychrus 
were  fed  on  snails,  but  they  also  readily  feed  on  the  soft 

*  He  also  used  empty  tomato  or  fruit  cans,  with  the  upper  edge 
cut  smooth  and  covered  by  fine  wire  cloth,  fastened  by  a  cord  or  tin 
Ting. 


BEARING  BEETLES.  277 

grubs  of  wood-borers.  "  Cunibus,  (!hloenius,  and  Galerita 
are  fed  with  veal^,  and  it  is  very  interesting  to  loi:k  at  the 
twelve  Carahus  limbatus  (six  males  and  six  females)  while 
devouring  the  meat,  tearing  and  lifting  it,  all  standing 
around  it  like  the  members  of  a  poultry-yard  around  a 
trough."*  He  bred  Diccelus  dilatatus  from  the  larvffi 
by  placing  them  in  a  bottle  half  filled  with  dry  earth,  wet- 
ting it  daily  with  three  or  four  drops  of  water. 

All  the  materials  put  in  the  cage,  viz.,  sand,  earth,  rotten 
wood,  moss,  etc.,  should  be  baked  or  passed  through  a 
bath  of  boiling  water  to  destroy  any  insect-life  (eggs  or 
minute  larvae)  that  might  be  present,  and  thus  lead  to  mis- 
takes or  result  in  injury  to  the  creatures  being  bred.  When 
a  sufficient  number  of  eggs  are  laid  in  the  breeding-box 
the  beetles  should  be  removed.  The  beetles,  while  in  con- 
finement, should  be  kept  during  the  day  in  a  dark,  cool 
place,  and  their  cage  should  be  placed  during  night  before 
the  window  in  the  open  air,  Cicindelte  of  course  excepted. 
The  larvae  of  the  latter  must  be  reared  singly,  as  they  other- 
wise would  destroy  one  another.  Also  cover  the  box  with 
tin  cloth  and  place  it  in  a  dark  closet  or  large  box,  or  else 
flies  and  ichneumons  will  destroy  them.  The  larvse  feed 
for  four  or  five  weeks,  while  tlie  pupte  require  for  their 
development  about  ten  days.  The  best  food  for  Ciciudela 
larvae  is  beheaded  wood-boring  grubs,  which  will  not  bite. 
All  remnants  of  food  should  be  carefully  removed  from  the 
breeding-box,  as  any  decaying  matter  is  harmful.  The 
earth  should  be  moistened  only  once  or  twice  a  week. 

In  raising  Carabids,  place  earth  in  the  cage  in  which  the 
young  may  burrow  for  protection  from  each  other.  A  few 
days  after  mating  the  males  should  be  removed,  and  a  few 
days  later  still  the  females  should  be  put  in  another  cage. 


*  Bulletin  of  the  Brooklyn  Entomological  Society,  i.  2.  Mr. 
Schaupp  suggests  that  to  procure  food  for  carnivorous  larvse  a 
piece  of  meat  be  left  for  a  while  in  the  cage,  with  ticshflies  deprived 
of  their  wings  ;  these  will  lay  eggs,  and  the  maggots  will  at  once 
hatch  and  serve  as  food  for  the  larval  beetles. 


278  ENTOMOLOGY. 

as  they  will  eat  their  own  offspring,  thus  differing  from 
dung-beetles  and  carrion-beetles  (Necrophori),  which  take 
great  care  of  their  young.  By  using  very  black  earth  for 
the  cages,  the  eggs  and  young  larvae  may  be  more  easily 
detected.  As  a  matter  of  course,  as  soon  as  the  larvas  are  a 
few  days  old,  each  one  should  be  placed  in  a  separate  box. 
Clusters  of  eggs  found  under  stones,  boards,  and  leaves 
may  be  also  taken  home  and  placed  in  boxes. 

Rearing  of  Burying-beetles  (Necrophorus  and  Silpha). — 
These  are  easy  to  raise.  In  a  soap-box  half  filled  with  loose, 
moist  earth  place  pieces  of  poor  meat  and  a  dozen  specimens 
of  Necrophorus  and  Silpha.  Cover  the  box  with  fine  wire 
cloth,  and  place  it  out  of  the  way  till  the  worst  smell  is 
over  ;  it  should  be  kept  in  the  dark  to  prevent  flies  from 
depositing  their  eggs  therein.  In  two  weeks  there  will  be 
plenty  of  larvae;  soon  after  the  pupae,  and  in  two  weeks 
more  the  beetles  may  be  found.  The  pupae  are  apt  to  be 
infested  by  small  parasites  which  hide  beneath  the  anten- 
nae and  legs ;  to  remove  them,  says  Schaupp,  take  a  very 
fine  hair-pencil,  dip  the  point  into  benzine  and  touch  the 
parasite,  which  will  become  dizzy  and  can  be  easily  removed. 

As  the  larvfB  of  Silphae  are  very  voracious  and  cannibal- 
istic, as  soon  as  they  are  obtained  they  should  be  separated 
as  early  as  possible,  placed  singly  in  a  separate  small  box 
and  fed  with  small  pieces  of  fresh  meat,  sufficient  for  one 
day's  rations.  On  feeding  them  the  following  day,  the 
remnants  of  the  former  repast  should  be  removed. 

Rearing  Wood-boring  Larvae,  Longicorns,  etc. — For  the 
most  part,  says  Schaupp,  Lamellicornia,  Longicornia,  Elat- 
eridse,  Buprestidse,  and  Curculionida  are  comparatively  easy 
to  raise,  but  care  has  to  be  taken  that  only  specimens  of  the 
same  species  are  confined  in  the  same  box.  Large  boxes 
should  be  used,  so  that  large  pieces  of  wood  containing  the 
larvae  may  be  placed  in  them.  These  may  be  treated  as  fol- 
lows :  Take  a  piece  of  wood  four  cubic  inches  in  size  ;  split  it 
in  two,  and  make  on  the  inside  a  cavity  just  large  enough  to 
receive  the  grub  and  allow  it  to  easily  move  in  it,  then  fasten 


REARING  BEETLES.  279 

the  two  liiilves  together  with  a  strong  rubber  l)and.  Slightly 
moisten  the  wood  in  the  box  twice  a  week,  and  if  the  larva 
escapes  by  boring  a  hole  through  the  wood,  replace  it  in 
the  central  cavity  by  filling  the  hole  with  a  plug.  Mr. 
Siewers  raised  the  larvae  of  borers  in  tin  or  glass  on  wet 
hard-wood  or  poplar  sawdust ;  he  kept  them  for  six  or  eight 
months,  changing  the  sawdust  once  a  month. 

Certain  larvte,  especially  those  of  Lamellicorns  and  Ela- 
teridas,  before  transformation  enter  the  earth.  For  such 
species  place  some  earth  in  the  box,  but  not  before  the 
larvaB  show  a  decided  wish  to  go  there  by  quickly  boring 
holes  straight  downwards  ;  for  the  earth  in  contact  with  the 
moist  wocd  rapidly  forms  a  deadly  fungus.  Of  course  the 
earth  for  the  breeding-boxes  must  be'  thoroughly  baked,  so 
as  to  destroy  all  insects,  etc.,  destructive  to  the  helpless 
soft-skinned  pupa? ;  the  larv«  and  pup^e  should  also  be 
kept  in  darkness. 

Rearing  of  Bark  and  Bast-boring  Beetles. — Such  insects, 
especially  Longicorns,  Buprestids,  Scolytidae,  etc.,  may  be 
reared  by  cutting  out  with  the  saw  and  hatchet  pieces  of 
the  infested  tree,  with  the  bark  on,  about  six  inches  square 
and  one  inch  thick.  The  castings  and  sawdust,  together 
with  the  larvas,  should  be  placed  under  the  bark.  Several 
pieces  of  bark  tied  together  with  the  bast-sides  opposite 
will  sometimes  answer  the  purpose,  but  the  better  way  is 
to  leave  the  larvse  in  the  wood  until  they  are  nearly  full- 
grown;  then,  in  general,  the  transformations  are  completed 
in  about  two  weeks. 

Rearing  Larvae  of  Dung-beetles. — These  may  be  taken 
home  with  a  part  of  the  earth  above  which  they  live  and 
part  of  the  nearly  dried  and  inodorous  cow-droppings  under 
which  they  hide.  *^But  here  the  greatest  care  has  to  be 
taken  not  to  overlook  the  very  numerous  small  Staphylinidse 
and  carabidous  larvae  that  live  with — or  rather  on — those 
scarabseidous  larvse."  * 

*  F.  G.  Schaupp  in  Bulletin  Brooklyn  Ent.  Soc,  iv.  17-19. 


280  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Cleansing  Greasy  Beetles. — To  clean  greasy  beetles,  etc., 
dip  them  for  a  half  to  a  whole  minute  in  spirits  of  am- 
monia (liquor  ammoniae),  and  wash  them  in  water  (the 
hotter  the  better).  A  longer  stay  in  ammonia  and  a  care- 
ful washing  dissolves  the  verdigris  on  pins  (John  Hamil- 
ton). Others  soak  them  in  benzine,  but  they  should  not 
be  left  too  long  in  it,  as  they  thereby  become  very  brittle. 
Dubois  removes  verdigris  from  insect-pins  by  immersing 
them  in  benzine  for  several  hours.  Primrose-beetles  are 
the  only  ones  that  the  benzine  bath  can  alter. 

To  Wash  Old,  Soiled  Specimens. — Place  the  specimens  in 
a  tin  kettle  three  quarters  filled  with  moist  sand,  to  soften 
them;  small  species  should  remain  therein  overnight, 
larger  ones  for  twenty-four  hours;  then  wash  them  with 
cold  water,  using  a  small  stiff  paint-brush,  and  if  not  suf- 
ficiently clean  apply  soap,  rubbing  with  the  brush  and  then 
washing  them  with  cold  water.  On  species  of  Trox,  Lach- 
nosterna,  etc.,  covered  with  a  layer  of  mud  on  the  wings, 
the  soap  should  be  allowed  to  remain  for  a  few  hours,  and 
then  washed  off  with  cold  water  (Bull.  Brooklyn  Ent.  Soc, 
vi.  24). 

Collecting  and  Preserving  Hemiptera. 

This  group  of  insects  has  been  much  neglected,  though 
no  group  will  yield  more  novel  discoveries  than  this.  By 
sweeping  grass  and  herbage,  as  for  beetles,  in  the  latter 
part  of  summer,  large  numbers  occur  which  can  best  be 
obtained  in  this  way.  Hibernating  species  are  found  under 
leaves  in  hard- wood  forests,  and  can  be  obtained  by  sifting 
the  leaves.  The  large  carnivorous  kinds  are  sometimes 
found  on  bushes  with  caterpillars  transfixed  on  their  beak. 
Aquatic  species  should  be  taken  out  with  the  water-net  by 
thrusting  it  suddenly  under  surface-swimming  species,  or 
by  pushing  it  among  submerged  grass  or  weeds  where  the 
smaller  forms  may  be  lurking;  several  kinds  occur  under 
submerged  logs,  sticks,  etc. 


PRESERVING  BEMIPTERA.  281 

The  soft-bodied  species  of  Aphis  or  plant-lice  should  be 
preserved  in  alcohol,  glycerine,  or  Canada 
balsam.  They  should  be  carefully  watched 
for  their  parasites,  and  can  be  easily  kept 
in  slender  glass  vials,  through  which  they 
can  be  observed. 

All  the  bugs  should  be  pinned  through 
the  distinct  triangular  scutellum,  situated 
in  the  middle  at  the  base  of  the  wings  Ym.  srs. -Method  of 
(Fig.  273).  The  small,  hard  species  of  pinmngabug. 
leaf-hoppers  should  be  pinned  through  the  right  wing- 
cover.  Various  quadrupeds  should  be  carefully  examined 
for  lice,  which  may  be  preserved  in  alcohol,  or  mounted  on 
slides  for  the  microscope. 

Examining  Live  Aphides. — Mr.  H.  J.  Slack  says  that  when  we  want 
live  aphides  to  examine  under  the  microscope  in  a  vigorous  condition, 
we  must  handle  them  with  extreme  gentleness,  or  their  soft  and  deli- 
cate bodies  will  be  injured  and  the  creature  killed.  Their  slightness 
of  structure  is,  however,  accompanied  with  great  endurance  of  con- 
ditions that  would  be  quickly  fatal  to  many  stouter  organisms.  Most 
insects  would  be  rapidly  killed  by  immersion  in  paratfine  oil;  but 
young  and  vigorous  aphides  will  often  live  for  some  time,  and  occa- 
sionally for  hours,  in  this  fluid,  such  as  is  burnt  in  lamps.  If  two  or 
three  of  the  insects  are  very  carefully  placed  in  a  little  cork  cell,* 
filled  with  paraffine  oil,  and  covered  with  thin  glass,  they  are  in  a 
handy  condition  for  examination.  The  result  of  ninncrous  experi- 
ments made  with  the  best  American  petroleum  oil,  commonly  called 
crystal  oil  in  the  lamp  shops,  is  that  the  survivals  are  very  uncertain, 
but  sufBciently  frequent  for  the  process  to  be  well  worth  trying. 
They  keep  pretty  quiet  in  the  fluid,  and  it  enables  higher  powers  to 
be  used  with  convenience.  A  A  inch  objective,  magnifying  about  100 
linear,  with  a  full -sized  instrument,  is  very  handy.  The  illumination 
should  be  varied;  but  one  of  the  best  ways  is  to  use  both  an  acliro 
matic  condenser  and  a  lieberkuhn,  or  little  silver  reflector,  at  the  end 
of  the  objective.  The  largest  hole  and  central  stop  of  the  condenser 
will  give  a  fine  dark-ground  illumination.  When  used  in  combination 
with  the  lieberkuhn,  it  lights  up  the  inside  of  the  object,  while  the 
less  transparent  parts  receive  reflected  rays  from  the  silver  surface. 
The  student  will  find  a  great  many  cases  in  which  this  mode  of  treat- 
ing a  refractive  and  reflective  object  produces  the  best  results.  The 
eyes  of  the  Aphis,  seen  in  this  way,  are  like  half  mulberries,  and  the 
little  eye  projecting  from  the  corner  of  the  larger  group  is  well  dis- 

*  A  vial -cork  |  inch  in  diameter  cut  across  so  as  to  make  a  disk 
^if  inch  thick,  with  an  oblong  hole  in  the  centre,  and  gummed  on  a 
slide.     The  gum  is  not  dissolved  by  paraffine  oil. 


282  ENTOMOLOGY. 

played.  Where  the  view  of  the  compound  eyes  is  a  full-face  one,  the 
darker  pigment  is  seen  so  strcngly  that  its  true  position  is  concealed. 
A  profile  view  shows  the  little  lenses  to  be  clear,  like  glass,  and  the 
pigment  to  be  behind  them.     (Knowledge,  iii.  (1883)  p.  246.) 


Peeservation  of  Orthoptera. 

Ortlioptera  can  be  easily  preserved  in  strong  alcohol,  and 
may  afterwards  be  taken  out  and  pinned  and  set  at  leisure. 
If  preserved  dry  they  can  be  killed  with  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium, or  ether,  without  losing  their  colors,  as  they  would 
do  after  remaining  long  in  alcohol.  They  should  be  pinned 
through  a  little  triangular  spot  between  the  bases  of  the 
elytra,  or  fore  wings,  when  the  wings  can  be  spread  to  ad- 
vantage. They  are  also  often  pinned  through  the  right 
wing,  as  in  Coleoptera.  In  pinning  these  insects  for  trans- 
portation, care  should  be  taken  to  put  in  additional  pins, 
crossing  each  other  on  each  side  of  the  abdomen,  and  in 
like  manner  to  steady  the  hind  legs,  which  are  very  apt  to 
fall  off  if  too  much  jarred. 


Preservation  of  Dragon-flies,  May-flies,  Caddis-flies, 
Stone-flies,  etc. 

These  net-veined  insects  of  different  orders,  the  young 
of  which  frequently  live  in  fresh-water  ponds  and  streams, 
should  be  pinned  through  the  centre  of  the  thorax;  the 
smaller  and  more  delicate  kinds  immediately  on  capture 
should  be  pinned  in  the  collecting-box. 

As  regards  the  preservation  of  the  dragon-flies,  Mr. 
Uhler  states  that  "  the  large,  brilliant  green  dragon-flies 
{Cordulina),  as  well  as  the  yellow,  brown-striped  Gompliina, 
having  the  eyes  wide  apart,  will  furnish  new  species  in 
almost  all  parts  of  the  country.  In  order  to  preserve 
specimens  in  the  neatest  manner  it  is  well  to  slip  them 
immediately  when  caught  into  paper  bags  of  suitable  size, 
first  taking  care  to  lay  back  the  wings  so  that  they  will  be 
applied  together,  to  prevent  mutilation.     These  paper  bags 


PRESERVATION  OF  INSECTS.  283 

may  be  placed  loosely  iu  a  box  carried  for  the  purpose.  The 
specimens  can  thus  be  taken  out  at  leisure,  killed  by  applying 
a  camel's-hair  pencil  dipped  in  ether,  chloroform,  or  ben- 
zine to  the  under  side  of  the  body,  and  then  spread  on  the 
setting-board.  In  most  species  the  colors  change  after 
death,  hence  it  is  imjiortant  to  make  short  descriptions  of 
the  colors  before  killing  the  specimens,"  The  smaller,  more 
slender,  and  delicate  Neuroptera  should  be  pinned  directly 
in  the  collecting-box.  Many  species  are  caught  by  a  light 
in  the  night-time,  such  as  Polystcecliotes  iiebulosus  and  the 
caddis-flies  {Neuronia  se7nifasciata,  etc.)  ;  and  a  bright 
light  placed  in  damp  situations  by  streams,  etc.,  will  attract 
large  numbers,  the  smaller  species,  like  moths,  being  at- 
tracted a  great  distance  by  light.  Other  species  of  this 
group,  so  numerous  in  the  Northern  States,  are  found  in 
great  numbers  floating  on  lakes  and  ponds.  For  the  proper 
study  of  the  genera  of  these  insects,  and  often  of  the 
species,  they  should  be  collected  in  alcohol,  so  as  to  be 
studied  in  a  flexible  state. 

The  aquatic  larvae  and  pupae  can  be  reared  in  aquaria  in 
jars  and  tumblers,  taking  care  that  the  weaker  species  are 
separated  from  those  more  powerful  and  bloodthirsty.  The 
little  Entomostraca,  or  water-fleas,  serve  as  food  for  the 
smaller  species.  With  care  many  species  can  be  reared  in 
this  way;  and  so  little  is  known  of  their  transformations 
that  figures  and  descriptions  would  be  of  great  value.  The 
interesting  and  varied  habits  of  the  different  families  can 
also  easily  be  noted. 

Preparation  of  May-flies  (Ephemerae). — The  wings  of  dried 
specimens,  says  Rev.  A.  E.  Eaton,  in  his  monograph  of  the 
group  (page  326),  in  some  of  the  genera  are  apt  to  be  com- 
pletely shrivelled  up.  When  such  is  the  case,  recourse 
may  be  had  to  the  following  method  of  preparing  them  for 
examination:  The  wing  detached  from  the  specimen  is 
first  of  all  floated  upon  scalding  water,  and  induced  to 
expand  as  fully  as  possible  whilst  it  is  floating.     It  is  next 


284  ENTOMOLOGY. 

taken  up  upon  paper  or  a  strip  of  glass  and  transferred  to 
cold  water,  and  then  spread  out  to  dry  upon  paper  or  glass. 
If  upon  pajjer,  the  wing  can  presently  be  separated  there- 
from by  bending  the  paper  away  from  it,  and  it  can  either 
be  mounted  permanently  as  an  object  for  the  microscope, 
or  be  placed  temporarily  for  examination  within  a  compress- 
cell,  care  being  taken  to  flatten  it  out  by  only  vertical  and 
gentle  pressure.  If  the  result  be  then  unsatisfactory,  tlie 
whole  process  can  be  repeated. 


Collecting  and  Rearing  Diptera. 

For  collecting  flies,  Dr.  Williston  states  that  June  in 
New  England  is  the  best  season,  so  that  April  in  the  cotton 
States,  May  in  the  Middle  and  Southern-Central  States, 
would  be  the  best  time  for  those  regions.  In  May  and  the 
early  part  of  June,  beating  will  give  excellent  results.  A 
little  later,  patches  of  blackberry,  wild  cherry,  dogwood, 
Canada  thistle  (Cirsium),  or  other  melliferous  blossoms, 
will  afford  desirable  specimens.  "It  is  better  to  let  speci- 
mens come  to  the  collector  than  to  go  hastily  about  looking 
for  them.  I  have  spent  six  hours  about  a  patch  of  Cor)ius 
paniculata  not  ten  metres  in  diameter,  and  been  amply 
repaid.  But  few  specimens  are  found  in  shady  woods; 
those  few  are  to  be  sought  for  there.  The  favorite  places 
for  Tabanidae,  as  indeed  for  most  flies,  are  on  the  borders 
of  woods,  open  glades,  meadow-lands,  etc." 

Dr.  Williston  advises  the  use  of  cyanide  bottles  of  the 
following  description,  as  specimens  collected  in  ordinary 
cyanide  bottles  are  worthless  for  scientific  purposes,  "  I 
select,"  he  says,  "several  one-  or  two-ounce  wide-mouthed 
bottles  of  the  same  form,  and  carefully  line  the  bottom  and 
sides  with  a  good  quality  of  blotting-paper.  Good,  firm 
corks  are  selected  which  are  interchangeable  in  the  dif- 
ferent bottles:  in  one  of  these  corks  a  small  hole  is  made, 
in  which  it  is  better  to  fit  a  small  metallic  ferule;  a  strip 


COLLECTINO  BIPTERA.  285 

of  blotting-paper  is  then  coiled  within  this  cavity,  and  it 
is  over  this  that  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of  cyanide  of 
potash  is  poured."  * 

It  is  useless  to  collect  flies  in  a  bare  bottle;  the  insects 
soon  exhale  moisture  sufficient  to  ruin  them.  The  blotting- 
paper  prevents  this^  and  the  cork  can  readily  be  removed 
from  one  bottle  and  put  into  another  when  a  suflicient 
quantity  of  flies  is  collected,  f  Moisture  of  any  kind  in- 
jures flies. 

"■  In  the  earlier  part  of  the  season  many  rare  specimens 
of  Diptera  may  be  obtained  by  beating.  For  this  purpose 
I  employ  a  rather  heavier  net  wire,  to  which  a  pointed  net 
of  cheese-cloth  is  attached.  On  such  occasions  it  is  neces- 
sary to  carry  with  one  a  larger  bottle  with  a  little  cotton- 
wool in  the  bottom  for  chloroform,  and  a  vial  of  the  latter 
in  the  pocket  to  be  poured  into  the  larger  bottle.  By 
thrusting  the  end  of  the  net,  with  its  contents,  for  a  few 
seconds  into  the  chloroform  bottle,  one  can  then  remove 
the  specimens  undisturbed.  Mik  advises  that  minute  flies 
should  be  preserved  alive  in  small  bottles  filled  with  paper 
clippings,  through  the  cork  of  which  a  small  glass  tube  is 
thrust  nearly  to  the  bottle.  For  a  collecting-net,  after 
many  experiments  and  failures,  I  have  found  most  service- 
able a  simple,  rather  light,  brass  wire,  soldered  together  to 
form  a  ring  about  28  cm.  (10-11  inches)  in  diameter,  and 
firmly  attached  to  a  light  handle  about  one  metre  long. 
The  net  is  made  of  very  coarse  bobbinet  lace,  the  most  ser- 
viceable and,  in  the  end,  the  cheapest  material.  The  net 
should  be  readily  handled  with  one  hand. 

"  Specimens  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain  overnight 
unpinned.     The  large  specimens  may  be  pinned  through 


*  Dr.  Williston  writes  me:  "I  notice  that  a  good  many  collectors 
now  use  such  a  bottle  for  all  kinds  of  insects." 

f  "If  one,"  says  Dr.  Williston  in  a  letter,  "  is  so  situated  that  he 
cannot  carry  a  box  to  pin  specimens  in,  he  should  put  cotton-wool  or 
paper  clippings  (rice  paper)  in  his  cyanide  bottle  to  prevent  the  shak- 
ing about  of  pilose  specimens." 


286  ENTOMOLOGY. 

the  thorax,  preferably  with  japanned  iron  pins.*  They 
should  be  placed  on  the  pin  only  low  enough  so  that  the 
head  may  be  grasped  with  the  thumb  and  forefinger  without 
danger  to  the  specimen.  The  wings  should  never  be 
spread.  Spreading  not  only  renders  the  specimens  more 
difficult  to  study,  but  it  spoils  the  natural  appearance  of 
the  insects,  and  is  a  positive  injury  to  them  for  the  cabinet. 
All  that  is  necessary  is  to  push  aside  the  wings  so  that  they 
will  not  conceal  the  abdomen.  Minute  specimens  should 
be  pinned  with  fine  iron  wire  from  the  under  side,  and  then 
pinned  upon  small  strips  of  thin  cork,  the  upper  surface  of 
which  has  been  covered  with  white  paper,  and  through  the 
other  end  of  which  a  pin  is  thrust.  Small  specimens  should 
never  be  glued  to  bits  of  cardboard,  as  is  commonly  done 
with  Coleoptera.  Only  one  specimen  should  be  placed  on 
the  piece  of  cork. 

"  The  greatest  enemy  to  dipterological  collections  is  dust: 
insects  can  be  guarded  against,  but  it  is  difficult  to  exclude 
dust,  unless  tight  cases  are  used.  Dampness  and  mildew 
do  often  much  mischief. 

"  A  good  dipterological  specimen  must  be  unrubbed,  un- 
moistened,  not  dusty  nor  greasy,  and  with  the  wings  un- 
spread.  It  is  quite  as  easy  to  collect  good  specimens  as 
poor  ones,  and  much  more  satisfactory."    {Psyche,  iv.  138.) 

Dr.  Williston  writes  me  that  for  the  collection  of  Bom- 
bylidae  and  similar  hairy  flies  "  my  present  custom  is  to 
pin  the  fly  while  in  the  net,  without  directly  touching  it, 
and  then  to  remove  it,  and  either  kill  it  in  the  cyanide 
bottlef  or  with  a  match,  then  pinning  it  in  a  box.  The 
specific  characters  of  many  Bombylids  are  in  the  hairs, 
which  are  very  easily  rubbed  off.  It  is  almost  impossible 
to  collect  them  in  a  bottle  and  get  good  specimens." 

In  an  elaborate  paper  J.   Mik,  the  Austrian  dipterist. 


*  Dr.  Williston  writes  me  that  he  does  not  like  japanned  pins  so 
much  as  formerly,  as  they  bend  so  easily. 
f  Dr.  Williston  prefers  1-oz.  cyanide  bottles. 


COLLECTING  DIPTEBA—HTMENOPTERA.        287 

gives  full  directions,  iu  which  the  chief  points  are  that  they 
must  not  be  pinned  in  the  middle  dorsal  line  of  the  thorax; 
and  that  they  should  not  be  killed  with  alcohol,  while  killing 
with  potassic  cyanide  is  not  recommended. 

Very  small  Diptera  should  not  be  killed  when  they  can- 
not be  immediately  pinned;  too  much  material  should  not 
be  collected  in  the  net  at  one  time;  and  hairy  flies  should 
not  be  taken  in  the  hand  to  pin,  but  handled  with  fine  for- 
ceps, while  lacquered-iron  needles  or  lacquered-iron  wire 
should  be  used  for  pinning  instead  of  common  insect-pins 
or  silver  wire  (which  contain  copper  and  are  therefore 
liable  to  corrode);  wire  should  be  used  for  all  flies  under 
3  mm.  iu  length.     (Abstract  in  Psyche,  iii.  226.)* 

Aquaria  are  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  aquatic 
larvse.  If  quantities  of  swamp-mud  and  moss  with  decaying 
matter  are  kept  in  boxes  and  jars,  multitudes  of  small  flies 
will  be  hatched  out.  Leaf-mining  and  seed-inhabiting 
species  can  be  treated  as  Micro-lepidoptera,  and  earth-in- 
habiting larvae  like  ordinary  caterpillars.  Dung,  mould  in 
hollow  trees,  stems  of  plants  and  toadstools,  contain  numer- 
ous larvae  or  maggots,  which  must  be  kept  in  damp  boxes. 


Collection  and  Preservation  of  Hymenoptera. 

These  insects  are  exceedingly  abundant,  and  especial  at- 
tention should  be  paid  to  collecting  the  smaller  species. 
They  should  be  pinned  through  the  thorax,  high  up  on  the 
pin,  and  those  that  are  not  hairy  collected  in  alcohol.  In 
fact,  as  much  depends  on' the  study  of  the  softer  parts  of 
the  mouth-appendages,  specimens  of  each  species  so  far  as 


*  Dr.  Williston  tells  me  that  "  Prof.  Mik  advises  ordinary  sulphur- 
matches  to  kill  specimens,  and  the  process  has  some  merits,  though  I 
think  it  is  inferior  to  a  lined  cyanide  bottle.  He  uses  an  oval  tin  box, 
in  which  there  is  left  an  opening  between  the  opposing  edges  that  will 
admit  a  match.  The  fly  is  put  in  the  box,  the  match  struck  and  in- 
serted till  the  sulphur  is  consumed,  then  withdrawn  and  the  cover 
fully  closed  till  the  fly  is  dead. " 


288  ENTOMOLOGY. 

possible  should  be  placed  in  alcohol,  as  it  is  difficult,  if  not 
impossible,  to  examine  the  under  lip,  etc.,  in  dried  speci- 
mens. The  hairy  species  of  bees  should  be  pinned  while  in 
the  net.  The  minute  ichneumon  flies  should  be  gummed  like 
small  beetles  upon  cards,  or  preserved  in  small  pill-boxes. 
The  nests  of  bees,  wasps,  and  ants,  and  the  young  in  the 
different  stages  of  development,  should  be  collected,  and 
the  latter  placed  at  first  in  weak  and  afterwards  in  strong 
alcohol. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
MODE  OF  DISSECTING  INSECTS. 

The  External  Anatomy, — For  tliis  purpose  alcoholic 
specimens  are  necessary,  the  chief  drawback  being  that  the 
alcohol  causes  the  muscles  to  so  contract  that  the  joints  of 
the  palpi  and  other  appendages  may  be  retracted;  specimens 
killed  with  cyanide  of  potassium  and  then  placed  in  alcohol 
may  prevent  contraction.  With  a  lens  mounted  in  a 
holder,  so  that  both  hands  can  be  used,  the  student  can, 
with  a  pair  of  fine  forceps  and  a  needle  mounted  in  a  handle, 
remove  the  appendages  of  the  mouth,  the  antennae  and  legs, 
and  with  a  pair  of  fine  scissors  cut  off  the  wings.  For  ex- 
amining microscopically  the  ends  of  the  antennae  and  palpi 
to  discover  the  external  parts  of  the  sense-organs,  the  ap- 
pendages should  be  carefully  cleaned  and  then  soaked  in 
emi  dejavelle,  or  in  dilute  liquor  potass^e,  in  order  to  render 
the  parts  transparent.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
liquor  potass^  dissolves  the  muscles,  nerves,  etc.,  leaving 
only  the  external  integument.  The  head  with  its  append- 
ages, the  segments  of  the  thorax,  and  the  abdomen  may  in 
most  insects  be  dissected,  the  parts  poisoned  with  cori'osive 
sublimate  and  gummed  to  a  caid,  in  the  manner  represented 
by  Fig.  1.  Dried  beetles  and  other  insects  may  be  relaxed 
by  being  placed  overnight  on  wet  sand,  or  placed  in  warm 
water,  in  alcohol,  or  in  glycerine.  Hairy  or  scaly  insects, 
such  as  Lepidoptera,  should  be  denuded  with  a  stiff  camel's- 
hair  brush:  this  of  course  is  necessary  in  examining  the  head 
of  Lepidoptera. 

The  Internal  Anatomy. — The  dissection  of  the  internal 
organs  of  insects  is  exceedingly  difficult  and  nice  work,  re- 
quiring delicacy  of  manipulation   and  untiring  patience. 


290  ENTOMOLOGY. 

The  prince  of  entomotoniists  was  Straus-Durckheim.  Pro- 
fessor Agassiz  once  told  us  that  it  was  Straus's  habit,  before 
beginning  his  day's  work,  to  eat  a  light  breakfast  and  abstain 
from  coffee,  so  that  his  hands  should  not  shake.  Straus's 
great  work  on  the  anatomy  of  the  cockchafer  and  his 
"Traite  pratique  et  theorique  d'anatomie  comparative" 
are  models  of  what  such  work  is  and  how  it  should  be  done. 
The  indispensable  instruments  for  entomotomy  are  a  flat 
tin  dish,  with  braces  soldered  within  near  the  bottom  to 
hold  down  a  piece  of  tliin  cork,  to  which  the  insect  may  be 
pinned,*  or  a  flat  glass  or  porcelain  dish,  in  which  melted 
wax  has  been  poured;  for  microscopic  dissection  a  large 
glass  cell  a  fourth  of  an  inch  thick,  in  which  melted  wax 
has  been  poured.  Other  tools  are  delicate  forceps,  scissors, 
straight  and  curved  (also  delicate  spring-scissors,  being  a 
pair  of  scissors  attached  to  a  long  handle,  with  one  blade 
moving  on  a  spring,  we  find  very  useful);  needles  of  different 
sizes  mounted  in  handles,  some  of  them  ground  to  a  knife- 
edge,  and  fine  narrow  scalpels  and  eye-knives;  also  an  in- 
jecting-syringe,  with  fine  points  of  different  sizes,  and 
pipettes;  though  an  ordinary  hypodermic  syringe  will 
answer.  The  beginner  should  select  for  his  first  attempt  at 
insect  anatomy  the  dissection  of  a  large  locust,  such  as 
Ac7-ydium  americanum  or  QSdipoda  Carolina,  or  a  katydid, 
with  the  aid  of  the  description  of  the  internal  anatomy  of 
Caloptenus   on   pp.   7-17.       By    carefully     cutting    along 

*  "  In  dissecting  insects  and  other  small  forms  one  occasionally 
experiences  considerable  difficulty  in  fastening  the  object  in  the  dis- 
secting-pan.  Pins  are  inconvenient  as  they  are  in  the  way,  and 
besides  they  frequently  injure  portions  of  the  specimen.  These  diffi- 
culties may,  however,  be  avoided  by  partially  imbedding  the  object 
in  wax  or  paraffine,  which,  however,  should  not  extend  above  the 
middle  line  of  the  body.  The  paraffine  and  the  embedded  object  may 
then  be  readily  fastened  in  the  dissectiug-tank,  or,  when  it  is  necessary 
to  stop  operations,  the  paraffine  and  object  may  be  placed  in  alcohol. 
(J.  S.  Kingsley  in  Science  Record,  it.  86.)  Prof.  C.  H.  Stowell 
uses  an  empty  blacking- box,  tilled  to  the  depth  of  about  \  inch  with 
melted  beeswax,  in  which  while  melted  a  grasshopper,  etc.,  is  placed 
in  the  desired  position,  and  the  whole  left  to  cool,  when  hard  water  is 
poured  in  and  the  dissection  begun.   (The  Microscope,  iv.,  1884,  277.) 


MODE  OF  DISSECTING  INSECTS.  291 

each  side  of  the  back  with  fine  scissors,  the  dorsal  por- 
tion of  the  integument  can  be  carefully  removed  so  as  to 
leave  the  inner  cellular  layer  (hypodermis)  untouched;  this 
should  then  be  raised,  disclosing  the  delicate  tubular  dorsal 
vessel  or  heart.  Below  it  lies  the  alimentary  canal,  which 
passes  through  the  middle  of  the  body.  The  nervous  sys- 
tem can  be  seen  upon  removing  the  alimentary  canal,  as  it 
lies  loosely  on  the  floor  of  the  body;  but  in  order  to  work 
out  the  ganglia  in  the  head,  it  is  better  at  first,  with  a 
sharp,  thin  scalpel,  to  cut  a  well-hardened  locust  in  two 
longitudinally,  the  section  passing  through  the  brain  and 
suboesophageal  ganglion.  Indeed,  a  "sagittal"  or  longitu- 
dinal section  of  a  well-hardened  locust  or  grasshopper  can 
be  easily  made,  and  when  floated  out  in  a  shallow  pan  of 
water  and  examined  with  a  Coddington  lens  attached  to  the 
movable  arm  of  the  lens-holder  can  be  studied  and  then 
put  away  in  a  wide-mouthed  bottle  for  future  observations. 
Mr.  Frank  Cheshire  has  in  his  work  on  the  honey-bee 
given  some  useful  hints  on  the  dissection  of  that  insect.  In 
order  to  dissect  the  salivary  glands  of  a  worker-bee,  he 
adopted  the  following  method: 

"  By  inserting  a  needle  into  the  mouth  of  a  worker-bee,  and  pass- 
ing it  upwards,  behind  the  front  wall  of  the  head,  the  latter  may  be 
so  opened  that  its  salivary  (?)  glands,  in  a  partly  broken  condition, 
may  be  obtained  for  examination;  but  if  the  attachments  and  entire 
forms  are  to  be  investigated,  we  must  proceed  as  follows:  Partly  fill 
some  shallow  receptacle,  such  as  a  pomatum-pot,  or  large  pill-box, 
with  melted  bee's  or  paraffine  wax.  When  cold,  with  a  hot  wire  melt 
a  little  bath  in  the  centre  of  the  waxen  surface,  and  then  insert  the 
bee  we  wish  to  dissect,  so  placing  in  this  case  that  one  side  of  the 
head  is  submerged.  By  a  second  application  of  the  wire,  re-melt  the 
wax  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  head,  using  no  more  heat  than  is 
necessary  to  secure  thorough  adhesion,  and  now  cover  with  water  or 
glycerine.  A  powerful  light  and  a  good  watch-maker's  eye-glass 
(secured  round  the  operator's  head  with  a  tape,  when  it  can  be  pushed 
up  on  to  the  forehead  if  not  required)  will  permit  of  reasonably  good 
dissection,  although,  of  course,  better  results  can  be  reached  by  using 
a  Stephenson's  erecting  binocular  microscope — the  instrument  with 
which  all  the  dissections  for  this  work  have  been  made.  The  bee 
thus  securely  held  by  the  wax,  both  hands  are  free  to  manipulate. 
Now,  with  a  needle-knife  (made  by  heating  a  large  needle,  beating  it 
flat,  and  afterwards  sharpening  upon  a  hone,  and  inserting  into  a 
wooden  handle)  cut  carefully  round  the  compound  eye,  and  lift  it 


292  ENTOMOLOGY. 

off.  Curiously  folded,  and  passing  round  the  optic  ganglion,  wc 
have  a  long  whitish  body,  which  a  facetious  friend  compared  to  ropes 
of  onions.  It  is  one  side  of  the  system  No.  1  of  Siebold  (Fig.  16). 
Behind  this,  and  extending  from  the  top  of  the  head  downwards,  we 
find  packed  inimitably  a  second  gland  system  (No.  2),  consisting  of 
many  pouches,  joined  by  canals  to  a  common  duct,  which  may  be 
followed  until  it  is  discovered  to  enter  another  duct  {b.  Fig.  16), 
running  backwards  and  forwards  in  the  body.  Tracing  this  channel 
towards  the  thorax,  we  see  it  enter  the  neck,  and  immediately  after 
bifurcate  or  fork  (c,  Fig.  16).  Following  the  line  of  one  of  the  two 
ducts,  we  come  upon  a  reservoir  (sc),  leading  backwards  to  another 
gland  system  (No.  3),  of  singular  structure,  with  two  lobes,  lying  in 
the  front  of  the  thorax  on  each  side  of  the  body.  The  position  of  all 
these  systems  is  well  seen  in  Plate  I.  The  operation  here  described 
is  not  likely  to  be  accomplished  with  one  bee,  and  I  spent  many 
days,  and  spoilt  many  specimens,  before  getting  the  glands  in  their 
entirety,  with  their  connections;  but  I  have  good  rea.son  for  suppos- 
ing that  these  successful  dissections  are  imique."    (pp.  74-76.) 

Cheshire  also  examines  the  "  stomach-mouth,"  as  seen  through  the 
transparent  walls  of  the  honey- sac,  in  the  following  way:  "  The 
oesophagus,  honey-sac,  and  chyle-stomach  should  be  removed  to- 
gether (from  a  recently  killed  bee),  and  placed  on  a  glass  slip,  the 
microscope  stage  being  made  horizontal.  No  cover-glass  should  be 
used,  but  sufficient  very  weak  salt  and  water  added.  The  whole 
object  will  exhibit,  for  at  least  fifteen  minutes,  muscular  contractions 
of  a  most  instructive  kind,  while  the  gaping  and  snapping  of  the 
stomach-mouth,  and  the  passing  onwards  of  food,  is  often  noticed. 
If  the  bee  operated  upon  has  just  previousljr  been  fed  with  honey 
stained  with  some  aniline  dye,  the  effect  is  enhanced.  By  closing 
the  oesophagus  I  have  frequently  succeeded  in  getting  not  only  food, 
but  even  bubbles  of  air,  gulped  down  into  the  chyle-.stomach,  and, 
by  carefully  pressing  upon  the  stomach-mouth  with  the  side  of  a 
needle,  the  lips  may  be  forced  open,  and  food  passed  on  into  the 
stomach  beyond."    (Bees  and  Bee-keeping,  p.  66.) 

Dissection  of  Aphides. — G.  B.  Buckton  sa3rs  that  "  in  the  dissection 
of  Aphides  much  assistance  may  be  often  got  by  a  selection  of 
liquids.  Some  of  these  are  best  suited  for  the  purpose  of  hardening 
the  tissues,  so  that  they  may  bear  separation  and  tearing  asunder 
without  their  destruction.  Others  are  used  for  coloring  the  transpar- 
ent organs,  so  as  to  make  them  more  visible.  These  organs  of  Aphides 
are  so  delicate  that  pure  water  will  in  a  great  measure  destroy  them. 
In  such  cases  a  weak  solution  of  common  salt,  or  very  dilute  glycer- 
ine, or  sugar  and  water,  or  albumen  and  water,  all  of  which  should 
nearly  approach  the  density  of  the  juices  of  the  insect,  will  be  found 
a  considerable  help. 

"  Some  Aphides  are  so  large,  so  full  of  liquid,  and  so  charged  with 
oil-globules  that  some  treatment  is  necessary  to  reduce  their  bulk, 
and  to  allow  of  a  sufficiently  thin  stratum  of  balsam  for  mounting. 

"In  such  cases  the  Aphides  maybe  placed  in  spirits  of  turpentine, 
and  just  raised  to  the  boiling-point  in  a  small  test-tube.  After  soak- 
ing in  the  turpentine  for  a  few  hours,  all  the  oil-globules  will  be 


MODE  OF  DISSECTING  INSECTS.  29-5 

removed,  aud  the  insect  by  this  trealniont  will  have  become  trans- 
parent, and  the  a(iueous  parts  will  not  then  chill  the  balsam. 

"To  prepare  Aphides  for  dissection,  liquids  may  be  divided  into 
those  used  for  hardening  the  tissues  and  those  employed  for  coloring 
the  same.  For  hardening,  a  digestion  for  several  hours  in  weak 
alcohol  will  be  of  advantage.  The  alcohol  must  not  be  too  strong, 
or  the  albuminous  portions  will  be  coagulated  and  become  too 
opaque. 

"  Weak  acetic  acid  will  render  some  portions  tough,  and  the  same 
action  is  also  well  effected  by  a  weak  solution  of  phosphoric  or  of 
nitric  acid. 

"  The  action  of  ordinary  ether  upon  Aphides  is  not  well  under- 
stood. Their  bodies  are  speedily  destroyed  by  plunging  them  into  the 
liquid.  At  the  same  time  a  considerable  stream  of  air-bubbles  con- 
tained in  the  tracheae  is  expelled,  and  of  such  a  volume  as  would  lead 
to  the  supposition  that  much  of  this  air  must  be  in  some  state  of 
solution  in  the  body-juices. 

"  The  reaction  of  weak  potash  has  been  before  noted.  As  a  rule, 
the  germinal  matter  resists  its  action  for  a  considerable  time. 
Simultaneously  this  reagent  usually  stains  it  a  bright  gamboge  yel- 
low. In  vsome  genera  (notably  Lachnus  and  Dryobius)  potash  deepens 
very  markedly  the  violet  dye  natural  to  these  Aphides.  In  other 
cases  I  have  found  potash  to  evoke  the  violet  shade  from  specimens 
otherwise  colorless.  This  dye  is  fugitive,  and  if  discliarged  by  an 
acid  cannot  be  again  recovered  by  the  action  of  an  alkali.  Soda 
and  ammonia  also  bring  out  this  color. 

"Advantage  may  be  taken  of  the  fact  that  there  is  a  certain  order 
in  which  the  tissues  resist  the  intrusion  of  a  foreign  matter  such  as  a 
dye.  Thus  the  germinal  and  most  vitally  endowed  organs  reject 
dying  by  carmine,  logwood,  and  sucli  coal-colors  as  magenta;  whilst 
the  portions  in  process  of  exfoliation  and  decay  absorb  it  the 
most  readily.  For  such  purposes,  weak  alcohol  may  be  made 
slightly  alkaline  by  ammonia,  and  tinged  with  a  little  carmine  or 
cochineal  solution.  Dilute  chromic  acid  both  tinges  the  tissues 
yellow  and  renders  them  tough.  Solutions  of  osmic  acid  also  may 
be  used  to  advantage,  and,  in  short,  the  usual  reagents  employed  for 
conducting  minute  anatomj'  may  be  taken  with  due  circumspection 
and  tenderness. 

"  For  labelling  specimens,  paste  will  be  found  much  more  adherent 
than  gum.  The  former  may  be  preserved  for  some  months  in  a 
well-closed  bottle,  if  a  little  aqueous  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate 
be  stirred  into  it."  ("Monog.  British  Aphides, "  iv.  (1883)  pp.  193-5.) 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

CUTTING   AND    MOUNTING     MICROSCOPIC    SECTIONS, 
AND  MOUNTING  INSECTS  WHOLE. 

After  becoming  familiar  from  careful  dissections  with 
the  gross  or  general  anatomy  of  insects,  and  having  per- 
ceived the  relations  of  the  various  viscera  to  one  another 
and  to  the  walls  of  the  body,  the  student  is  prepared  to 
appreciate  serial  microscopical  sections  of  insects,  or  of 
selected  portions  of  their  bodies.  These  can  be  made  by 
the  aid  of  the  microtome,  and  an  insect  whose  integument 
is  not  too  thick  can  with  this  instrument  be  cut  from  head  to 
tail  into  several  hundreds  of  slices  from  joVo  ^o  yoVir  ^^  ^^ 
inch  in  thickness.  In  this  way  the  histology  or  fine  anatomy 
of  the  hypodermis,  and  the  epidermal  glands  of  the  nervous 
ganglia,  alimentary  canal,  the  crop  with  its  teeth,  the 
stomach  and  intestine,  etc.,  can  be  examined. 

The  following  directions,  which  apply  to  soft  organs,  or 
portions  of  them,  of  animals  in  general,  have  been  taken 
from  Lee's  "  Microtomist's  Vade  Mecum,"*  while  extracts 
from  other  authors,  relating  to  special  points,  are  added. 

In  order  to  prepare  sections  of  entire  insects,  or  of  sepa- 
rate organs,  the  insect  to  be  studied  should  be  first  carefully 
killed,  and  the  tissues  "fixed,"  theu  stained,  finally  washed 
out  or  dehydrated  v/ith  alcohol,  and  sections  cut  with  the 
microtome  and  mounted  in  balsam  or  glycerine  jelly. 

In  general,  larvas  and  other  soft-bodied  insects  should  be 
killed  by  being  thrown  into  weak  or  50  per  cent  alcohol, 
so  that  the  body  or  the  separate  soft  parts  will  not  contract 

*  A.  B.  Lee's  "  Microtomist's  Vade  Mecum"  (Loudon,  1885).  See 
also  Whitman's  excellent  "  Methods  in  Microscopical  Anatomy  and 
Embryology"  (Boston,  1885),  Prudden's  "Histology," and  especially 
Stohr's  "Lehrbuch  der  Histologic." 


CUTTING  AND  MOUNTING  SECTIONS.  295 

too  much,  and  tlien  after,  say,  twelve  liours  transferred  to 
strong,  90  per  cent,  and  in  some  cases  absolute,  alcohol. 
After  being  transferred  to  90  per  cent  alcohol,  the  specimens 
should  be  again  placed  in  fresh  alcohol,  in  roomy  vials  not 
too  closely  crowded,  and  should  rest  on  a  mass  of  cotton 
so  as  not  to  lie  directly  on  the  bottom  of  the  bottle. 

Fixation  of  the  Histological  Elements. — Two  things,  says 
Lee,  are  implied  by  the  word  "■  fixing;''  first,  the  rapid  kill- 
ing of  the  element,  so  that  it  may  not  have  time  to  change 
the  form  it  had  during  life,  but  is  fixed  in  death  in  the 
attitude  it  normally  had  during  life;  and  second,  the  hard- 
ening of  it  to  such  a  degree  as  may  enable  it  to  resist  with- 
out further  change  of  form  the  action  of  the  reagents  with 
which  it  may  subsequently  be  treated. 

The  most  convenient  fixing  agents  are  picro-sulphuric 
acid  (Kleinenberg's  or  Mayer's  formula)  and  corrosive 
sublimate.  After  treating  the  structure  with  one  of  these, 
it  should  be  washed  so  as  to  remove  from  the  tissues  all 
traces  of  the  fixing  reagent.  If  corrosive  sublimate,  or  osmic 
acid,  or  a  solution  into  which  chromic  acid  or  a  chromate 
enters,  has  been  used  for  fixing,  the  washing  may  be  done 
with  water;  but  if  picric  acid  has  been  used,  the  washing 
should  be  done  with  alcohol. 

Dehydration. — As  soon  as  the  fixing  agent  is  removed,  the 
water  of  the  tissues  must  be  removed;  this  is  done  by  plac- 
ing the  object  gradually  in  alcohol,  at  first  in  50  per  cent 
alcohol  for  two  hours,  70  per  cent  for  six  to  twenty-four 
hours,  80  per  cent  several  hours,  95  per  cent  two  or  three 
hours,  and  absolute  alcohol  time  enough  for  complete 
saturation. 

For  insects,  especially,  Mayer's  fluid  seems  preferable. 
He  prepares  it  as  follows:  distilled  water  100  vols.,  sulj)huric 
acid  2  vols.,  picric  acid,  as  much  as  will  dissolve;  filter. 
As  this  fluid  does  not  diffuse  very  rapidly  through  thick 
chitin,  Mayer  directs  that  insects  should  be  opened  with 
scissors,  and  the  body-cavity  at  once  filled  with  the  solution 
by  means  of  a  pipette.     A  large  quantity  of  the  solution 


296  ENTOMOLOGY. 

should  be  employed  in  all  eases,  and  it  should  be  changed 
as  often  as  any  cloudiness  arises  in  it.  Washing-out  is  done 
with  70  per  cent  alcohol,  and  warm  alcohol  extracts  the 
acid  much  more  quickly  than  cold. 

Embedding,  Staining,  and  Cutting. — The  water  having 
been  completely  removed,  the  object  is  placed  in  good 
chloroform  for  a  few  minutes  until  saturated.  The  chloro- 
form, adds  Lee,  is  now  to  be  gradually  saturated  with 
paraffine.  "This  is  done  by  placing  it,  with  the  object,  on 
a  water-bath,  heating  it  to  the  melting-point  of  the  paraffine 
employed,  and  dropping  into  it  from  time  to  time  small 
pieces  of  paraffine.  When  it  is  seen  that  no  more  bubbles 
are  given  off  from  the  object  the  addition  of  paraffine  may 
cease,  as  that  is  a  sign  that  the  paraffine  solution  has  en- 
tirely taken  the  place  of  the  chloroform  in  the  object.  This 
displacement  having  been  gradual,  the  risk  of  shrinkage  of 
the  tissues  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  heating  is  then 
continued  (at  the  melting-point  of  the  pure  paraffine)  until 
the  whole  of  the  chloroform  has  been  driven  off,  which  may 
be  conveniently  tested  by  the  smell.^'  The  object  is  then 
embedded  in  the  desired  position,  and  sections  cut  with  the 
microtome. 

The  sections,  cut  dry,  are  mounted  in  series  on  a  glass  slide. 
To  fix  collodion  sections  in  serial  order,  preparatory  to 
mounting,  Minot  advises  their  arrangement  on  the  slide  in 
95  per  cent  alcohol.  Then  the  alcohol  is  poured  off,  and 
a  drop  of  alcoholic  shellac  placed  on  each  section  (just 
enough  to  cover  the  section  completely).  The  slide  is  next 
placed  in  the  oven  of  a  water-bath  at  40°  for  a  few  minutes 
(5-10),  until  dry.  The  sections  are  then  ready  for  clarify- 
ing in  clove-oil,  and  mounting  in  balsam. 

Another  and  perhaps  better  collodion  fixative  is  that 
tried  by  Schallibaum,  whose  solution  is  prepared  by  dis- 
solving one  part  collodion  in  three  or  four  parts  clove 
oil,  which  is  applied  to  the  slide  by  means  of  a  fine  brush 
at  the  time  of  using.  The  sections  having  been  arranged, 
the  slide  is  warmed  for  a  few  minutes  (5-10)  in  the  oven  of 


CUTTING  AND  MOUNTING  SECTIONS.  207 

a  water-bath,  in  order  to  evaporate  the  clove  oil.  The 
sections  may  next  be  freed  from  the  embedding  mass  and 
colored  according  to  desire.  Gage  recommends  that 
the  collodion  and  clove  oil  be  applied  separately.* 
''The  paraffine  is  now  removed  and  the  sections  are 
stained,  generally  with  borax-carmine,  which  two  operations 
are  performed  as  follows:  A  series  of  glass-tubes  large  enough 
to  hold  a  slide  is  filled  with  the  following  reagents,  and 
arranged  in  the  following  order:  Turpentine  (or  naphtha); 
absolute  alcohol;  90  per  cent  alcohol;  70  per  cent  alcohol; 
alcoholic  borax-carmine;  70  per  cent  alcohol  acidulated  with 
HCl;  90  per  cent  alcohol;  absolute  alcohol.  The  slide, 
having  been  warmed  to  the  melting-point  of  the  paraffine, 
is  plunged  into  the  turpentine,  which  removes  the  paraffine ; 
then  passed  through  the  tubes  with  the  successive  alco- 
hols into  the  stain,  from  which  it  is  brought  into  the  suc- 
cessive alcohols  of  the  ascending  series,  which  wash  out  the 
stain  and  dehydrate  the  sections.  Nothing  more  now  re- 
mains to  be  done  but  to  treat  the  sections  with  a  drop  of  ben- 
zol or  turpentine,  and  to  add  Canada  balsam  and  a  covering- 
glass.  " 

When  the  objects  are  small  and  sufficiently  permeable, 
the  sections  can  be  stained  on  the  slide.  "  In  this  case  the 
object  after  having  been  fixed  and  washed  out  is  taken 
while  still  on  its  way  through  the  lower  alcohols  (it  should 
not  be  allowed  to  proceed  to  the  higher  grades  of  alcohol 
before  staining)  and  passed  through  a  bath  of  alcoholic 
borax-carmine  (or  other  alcoholic  stain)  of  sufficient  dura- 
tion, then  dehydrated  with  successive  alcohols,  passed 
through  chloroform  into  paraffine,  and  cut  as  above 
described. "  f 


*  See  Whitman's  Methods  of  Research  in  Microscopical  Anatomy 
and  Embryology,  pp.  121,  123. 

fif  the  objects  have  already  been  soaked  in  clove-oil,  or  other 
essential  oil,  for  the  purpose  of  clearing,  they  may  either  be  embedded 
direct  from  the  clove-oil,  or  this  may  be  removed  by  means  of 
chloroform,  which  is  the  better  practice  (Lee). 


298  ENTOMOLOGY. 

For  staining,  alcoholic  cochineal  (Mayer's  formula)  is 
recommended  for  insects  on  account  of  its  high  jDeuetrating 
power,  since  the  chitinous  skin  of  insects  is  but  slightly 
permeable  by  aqueous  solutions  of  carmine. 

To  embed  an  object,  as  a  small  insect,  or  portion  of  an 
insect,  make  a  little  tray,  box,  or  thimble  out  of  paper, 
which  can  be  filled  with  melted  paraffine,  the  paper  being 
removed  before  cutting;  the  cast  thus  made  can  be  inserted 
directly  in  the  jaws  of  a  Thoma  microtome,  or  cemented  to  a 
piece  of  cork  which  \t  held  by  them.  Besides  parafiBne,  wax 
and  oil  and  naphthaline  serve  as  embedding-masses.  A  bit 
of  soft  tissue,  says  Prudden,  may  be  embedded  in  a  mixture 
of  equal  parts  of  white  wax  and  paraffine  melted  together, 
with  the  addition  of  a  sufficient  quantity  of  olive-oil  to  give 
the  mass  the  proper  consistence  for  cutting  when  cold. 

Celloidin  is  also  recommended  for  use  as  an  embedding 
material.  It  may  be  obtained  of  dealers  in  micro-supplies. 
It  is  sold  in  the  form  of  plates  and  shreds  (the  shreds 
being  more  convenient  for  use)  put  up  in  ounce  packages. 
A  saturated  solution  of  celloidin  is  made  in  a  mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  sulphuric  ether  and  alcohol  (97  per  cent). 
This  requires  about  twenty-four  hours  with  occasional 
agitation. 

If  the  object  to  be  cut  is  loose  in  structure  or  porous,  it 
should  be  transferred  from  strong  alcohol  to  a  mixture 
of  equal  parts  of  alcohol  and  sulphuric  ether  and  allowed 
to  remain  for  a  short  time,  and  then  placed  in  a  small 
quantity  of  the  celloidin  solution  and  allowed  to  remain 
until  the  celloidin  has  thoroughly  penetrated  the  object. 
If  the  piece  is  small,  a  drop  of  the  celloidin  solution  may  be 
placed  on  one  corner  of  a  slightly  greasy  glass  slide,  and 
the  object  set  up  in  it  with  the  face  to  be  cut  placed  next 
the  glass.  More  of  the  solution  is  dropped  on  to  the  object 
until  it  is  covered  by  a  lump  or  pile  of  the  celloidin;  when 
it  has  set  sufficiently  to  allow  it  to  be  handled  without  dis- 
placement, immerse  the  slide  with  its  little  pile  of  celloidin 


CUTTING  AND  MOUNTING  SECTIONS.  299 

in  strong  alcohol  and  allow  it  t«  remain  nntil  it  is  hard 
enough  to  cut,  changing  the  alcohol  if  necessary. 

When  ready  to  cut,  place  the  corner  of  the  glass  slide  over 
the  well  of  the  microtome,  with  the  object  hanging  in  the 
well,  and  fill  the  well  even  to  the  surface  with  the  paraffine 
embedding  mass.  As  soon  as  the  paraffine  hardens,  the  glass 
slide  can  be  easily  removed  witli  a  sliding  motion  which 
leaves  the  surface  to  be  cut  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the 
microtome. 

Cut  away  the  embedding  mass  of  paraffine  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  front  and  back  sides  shall  be  parallel  and  leave 
enough  to  support  the  object  to  be  cut,  and  then  slice  with 
a  razor  or  the  knife  of  the  microtome.  The  parallel  edge 
of  the  first  section  adheres  to  the  edge  of  the  succeeding 
section,  and  the  series  of  sections  can  be  removed  from  the 
knife,  placed  in  order  on  the  slide,  and  secured  in  position. 
The  superfluous  paraffine  can  be  removed  with  warm  tur- 
pentine, and  the  turpentine  with  alcohol  if  it  is  desirable 
to  stain  the  sections  on  the  slide. 

If  the  piece  to  be  sectioned  is  large,  after  treating  with 
the  solution  of  celloidin  it  can  be  embedded  in  a  small 
folded  paper  box,  as  directed  for  embedding  in  paraffine. 

As  both  absolute  alcohol  and  oil  of  cloves  dissolve  the 
celloidin,  in  dehydrating  use  alcohol  of  96  per  cent,  and  in 
clearing  oil  of  bergamot,  oil  of  sandal,  or  oil  of  origanum.* 

Dr.  L.  Lowe's  mixture  for  embedding  is  the  following: 

Gelatine 1  part. 

Glycerine 1  part. 

Water 5  parts. 

This  is  put  upon  the  water-bath  and  thoroughly  dissolved 
and  afterwards  strained.  After  coloring  the  animal  prep- 
aration it  is  well  washed  with  water  and  then  submerged 
in  the  gelatine  at  a  temperature  of  not  more  than  122°  F. 

*  Contributed  by  N,  N.  Mason,  Esq. 


300  ENTOMOLOGY. 

At  this  temperature  the  preparation  remains  until  it  is 
completely  saturated  with  the  gelatine  (from  1  to  3  clays), 
and  is  then  taken  out.  A  piece  of  hollow  pith  or  several 
pieces  side  by  side  are  cut  flat  upon  one  side  and  the 
preparation  laid  upon  it  or  them,  the  gelatine  being 
dropped  upon  the  latter  so  as  to  cover  the  preparation  and 
fix  it  to  the  pith.  After  cooling  for  a  few  minutes  the 
whole  is  placed  in  absolute  alcohol,  where  it  is  to  remain 
for  a  few  days,  the  longer  the  better,  and  it  ic  then  ready 
for  the  microtome.  The  microtome  having  been  filled  with 
melted  wax,  the  preparation  is  immersed  in  it.  After 
cooling,  the  wax  is  cut  away  so  that  the  knife  does  not 
come  in  contact  with  it  in  cutting.  Before  making  each 
section  a  drop  of  oil  of  cloves  is  applied  to  the  preparation 
and  the  subsequent  cut  is  ready  for  the  slide.  Mount 
using  dammar  or  balsam  in  benzole,  or,  better,  clear 
balsam. 

Mounting  Sections. — The  process  of  mounting  is  simple. 
After  the  slices  are  arranged  on  the  glass  slide,  a  little  balsam 
or  glycerine  jelly  is  placed  on  the  objects,  the  slide  being 
held  over  the  flame  of  a  candle  so  as  to  slightly  heat  it  and 
drive  off  the  fluids  as  well  as  to  liquefy  the  balsam  or  jelly, 
and  then  a  thin  cover-glass  is  placed  over  the  object,  and  a 
covering  of  Brunswick  black  varnish  placed  with  a  brush 
around  the  edge  of  the  cover-glass,  to  prevent  the  penetra- 
tion of  air  or  leakage  of  the  fluid  within,  and  allowed  to 
dry  for  a  day  or  two  before  being  used. 

Dr.  Kingsley  states  that  one  great  difficulty  in  rapidly 
mounting  in  glycerine  is  in  fastening  the  cover-glass 
firmly.  "  Various  modes  of  procedure  have  been  described, 
possibly  the  best  the  writer  has  seen  in  print  being  that 
which  employs  paraflfine.  A  still  better  method  is  to  use  a 
very  small  amount  of  glycerine,  so  little  in  fact  that  when 
the  cover  is  applied  the  margin  of  the  glycerine  does  not 
reach  the  edge  of  the  glass.  Then,  with  a  fine  brush,  balsam 
or  dammar  dissolved  in  benzol  is  allowed  to  run  in  under 
the  edge  of  the  cover-glass,  and  after  becoming  hard  the 


MOUNTING  INSECTS.  301 

superfluous  balsam  is  cleaned  off,  and  the  slide  finished  in 
any  desired  manner."     (Science  Eecord,  ii.,  1883,  17.) 

To  Render  Small  Insects  or  Larvae  Transparent. — While 
some  dipterous  and  hymenopterous  larva  are  naturally 
transparent,  the  nervous  system  can  be  more  clearly  brought 
out  by  the  use  of  acetic  acid,  which  can  be  dropped  on  the 
object  while  in  the  animalcule  or  live  box  or  on  the  glass 
slide. 

Glycerine  or  glycerine  jelly  is  an  excellent  article  for 
rendering  the  body  transparent,  and  can  be  used  in  observ- 
ing living  Aphides  and  similar  insects,  as  it  renders  the 
chitinous  integument  more  transparent. 

Dr.  Looss  has  found  that  a  solution  of  sodic  hypochlorite 
{ea7i  de  Laharraque)  of  the  druggists,  or  of  potassic  hypo- 
chlorite {eau  de  JavelJe),  is  a  fine  solvent  for  chitin  in 
making  microscopical  preparations.  ''  The  liquid,  as 
bought,  completely  dissolves,  when  heated,  even  the  solidest 
and  hardest  chitinous  parts  of  insects  in  a  short  time,  first 
making  them  glass-like,  transparent,  and  entirely  colorless. 
If  the  liquid  is  diluted  with  six  or  seven  times  its  volume 
of  water,  and  the  chitinous  parts,  either  fresh  or  after  they 
have  been  hardened,  are  put  in  it  for  twenty-four  hours,  or 
even  longer  according  to  size,  the  chitin  will  be  altered, 
although  not  noticeably  externally;  it  loses  much  of  its 
original  brittleness,  and  above  all  things  is  more  permeable 
to  staining  solutions.  The  objects  require  for  complete 
staining  greater  or  less  time  according  to  size,  but  the 
coloration  is  beautiful  and  distinct  with  either  alcoholic  or 
aqueous  staining  reagents.  In  our  institute  Pediculidae 
and  Mallophaga  have  been  prepared  by  this  method  which 
show,  besides  their  ti-ansparency,  complete  and  clear  colora- 
tion." {Psyche,  iv.  286.)  This  fluid  may  also  be  used  to 
make  the  eggs  of  insects  more  transparent. 

Mounting  Transparent  Aquatic  Insects. — Mr.  0.  Lugger 
describes  a  new  method  of  preserving  and  mounting  trans- 
parent aquatic  insects  for  the  microscope.  For  observing 
them  while  alive  a  common  life-cell  is  all  that  is  required, 


302  ENTOMOLOOT. 

but  for  permanent  preservation  he  mounts  them  in  a  neat 
and  very  useful  cell  devised  by  Dr.  T.  Taylor,  which  is 
easily  made  of  common  beeswax,  and  can  quickly  be  built 
up  to  any  desired  height.  "  To  make  the  cell  harder,  and  to 
raise  the  melting-point,  a  slight  amount  of  powdered  resin 
is  added.  Both  materials  are  heated  together  in  a  small 
porcelain  dish,  so  as  to  thoroughly  combine  them  into  a 
homogeneous  mass.  If  required  for  use,  the  dish  is  simply 
heated,  and  the  cell  is  made  in  the  usual  way  upon  a  turn- 
table. Since  both  turn-table  and  slide  are  colder  than  the 
wax,  the  cell  becomes  visible  at  once,  and,  by  repeated 
applications  with  the  brush,  it  can  be  made  of  any  required 
depth.  If  too  high,  or  if  too  sloping  towards  the  centre, 
the  wax  can  be  readily  removed  upon  the  turn-table  by  the 
application  of  a  knife;  a  groove  for  the  reception  of  the 
cover-glass  is  also  very  readily  made.  The  cell  is  now  ready 
for  most  purposes,  and  is  an  excellent  one  for  mounting 
with  glycerine  jelly  and  Canada  balsam.  If  another  ma- 
terial— oil,  for  instance — is  to  be  used  which  would  dissolve 
the  wax,  the  inside  of  the  cell  should  first  be  coated  with 
any  of  the  usual  varnishes,  such  as  Brunswick  black.  The 
same  varnish  should  also  be  used  from  the  outside  to  seal 
the  completed  and  filled  cell.  I  have  found  such  cells  of 
great  utility  in  enclosing  aquatic  larvae.  To  do  so  satisfac- 
torily, I  make  with  a  knife  a  shallow  cut  across  the  cell, 
and  fill  the  latter  with  water  in  which  the  larva  to  be  pre- 
served has  been  placed.  By  gently  pressing  down  with  a 
cover-glass,  I  can  secure  the  still  living  specimen  in  any 
desired  position.  Now  I  remove  with  a  piece  of  blotting- 
paper  a  very  small  quantity  of  the  water  through  one  of  the 
cuts  previously  made,  and  allow  at  the  other  cut  the  pyro- 
ligneous  acid  to  enter.  As  soon  as  this  acid  has  reached  the 
larva,  this  dies  at  once  in  the  position  occupied  at  the  time. 
The  cell  is  now  sealed  in  the  usual  way;  but  previous  to 
doing  so  the  sides  of  the  two  cuts  are  pressed  together. 
"  Specimens  thus  treated  remain  unchanged  for  a  long 


MOUNTING  INSECTS.  303 

time;  for  how  long  I  do  not  know  as  yet,  but  possibly  for 
an  indefinite  time,  if  not  exposed  to  the  sunlight." 

"  With  this  method  of  preserving  transparent  aquatic 
larvae  can  be  combined  the  staining  of  them  at  the  same 
time.  For  this  purpose  aniline-blue  or  fuchsine  should  be 
used,  which  are  soluble  in  water.  One  part  of  the  color, 
dissolved  in  200  parts  of  distilled  water,  is  mixed  with  800 
parts  of  the  rectified  pyroligneous  acid.  The  modus 
operandi  is  the  same.  In  the  course  of  several  hours  the 
object  has  become  uniformly  stained,  and  can  be  sealed 
after  the  addition  of  another  drop  of  the  acid.  If  stained 
too  dark,  a  current  of  the  diluted  acid  will  soon  remedy 
this  fault."    (Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  Washington,  i.  101.) 

Transmission,  Preservation,  and  Mounting  of  Aphides  and  Similar 
Insects. — G.  B.  Bucktou  gives  the  results  of  his  experience  as  to  the 
best  mode  of  transmitting  living  Aphides,  and  also  the  best  method 
for  killing  and  preserving  similar  insects  for  future  examination. 

As  to  transmission,  the  chief  thing  to  be  guarded  against  is  desic- 
cation, and  no  plan  seems  to  be  so  successful  as  their  enclosure  in 
ordinary  quills  stopped  by  plugs  of  cork  or  pellets  of  beeswax. 
The  substance  of  the  quill  is  sufficiently  porous  to  prevent  mildew 
on  the  one  hand  and  a  rapid  evaporation  on  the  other.  In  this  way 
small  insects  may  be  sent  through  the  post,  and  in  a  far  better  con- 
dition than  can  be  secured  in  any  tin  boxes,  even  though  they  be 
filled  with  leaves.  If  a  slip  of  some  succulent  leaf  be  rolled  round 
each  quill,  to  retain  moisture,  a  bundle  will  conveniently  pass 
through  the  post. 

For  preservation  (other  than  on  a  slide)  the  best  plan  is  to  drop  the 
insects  into  small  flattened  glass  tubes  partially  tilled  with  a  suitable 
liquid,  then  draw  the  tube  to  a  tine  point,  break  the  end  ofl",  and 
warm  the  empty  space  (or,  better,  expel  the  air  by  a  pump),  and  the 
tube  can  be  entirely  filled  with  liquid,  and  then  sealed  with  the 
blow-pipe. 

For  mounting  microscopically,  five  or  a  dozen  spots  of  fluid  Can- 
ada balsam  should  be  dotted  on  a  slide  from  the  head  of  a  pin,  and 
by  means  of  a  hair-pencil  as  many  living  insects  transferred  to  them. 
"  The  specimens  at  once  adhere,  and  if  the  spots  are  small  the  insects 
spread  out  their  limbs  naturally,  with  a  view  to  escape.  They  may 
be  fixed  on  their  backs  or  otherwise,  according  to  the  views  desired. 

"  A  very  thin  glass  cover,  or,  if  very  high  magnifying  powers  are 
wanted,  a  small  disk  of  clear  mica,  is  laid  over  the  insects,  and  then 


304  ENTOMOLOGY. 

one  or  more  drops  of  the  fluid  balsam  are  delivered  from  a  glass  rod 
at  one  of  the  sides  of  these  covers.  The  balsam  runs  slowly  under 
by  capillarity,  and  it  drives  all  the  air  before  it,  the  small  weight  of 
the  cover  assisting  it  to  spread,  until  the  whole  area  is  tilled.  No 
pressure  is  to  be  used,  or  the  elastic  bodies  of  the  Aphides  will  change 
shape;  and  besides  this,  the  juices  will  be  forced  through  the  corni- 
cles and  pores.  If  the  balsam  is  thick,  a  ver\-  gentle  heat,  hardly 
exceeding  that  of  the  cheek,  may  be  applied,  but  as  a  rule  the  tem- 
perature of  a  room  is  better  than  that  which  exceeds  it.  The  insects 
die  immediately  if  they  are  cut  off  from  air,  and  in  almost  every 
case  their  position  will  be  good  for  examination.  To  spread  the 
wings  of  a  small  insect,  the  above-mentioned  small  dots  ma}'  be 
spread  in  a  row.  The  belly  of  the  specimen  is  applied  to  the  middle 
spot,  and  hy  a  bristle  one  wing  may  be  applied  to  the  dot  on  the 
one  side,  and  the  other  wing  to  the  third  dot.  The  cover  is  then 
placed  as  before,  and  when  the  balsam  runs  in  it  will  not  disturb  the 
position  of  the  spread  wings. 

"It  will  be  noticed  that  very  soon  after  live  insects  have  been 
mounted  in  a  resinous  substance  that  will  not  mix  with  water,  a 
white  cloudiness  forms  around  each  specimen.  This  is  caused  by 
the  watery  juices  of  the  insect,  which  '  chill '  the  medium  and  make 
it  opaque. 

"  This  cloudiness,  however,  entirely  disappears  after  perhaps  a- 
month,  the  moisture  being  carried  slowly  onwards.  The  same  is 
to  be  said  of  stray  air-bubbles  The  oxygen  of  the  air  unites  with 
the  balsam,  and  thus  hardens  it;  but  what  combination  is  effected 
with  the  nitrogen  is  not  so  clear.  However,  air-bubbles  in  balsam 
disappear  in  time,  provided  the  former  is  not  in  too  hard  a  condition. 

"  In  cases  where  the  above  small  pressure  is  undesirable,  small 
circles,  cut  by  round  punches  of  different  sizes  out  of  very  thin  sheet 
lead,  will  be  found  more  convenient  to  insert  between  the  glass  slip 
and  its  cover  than  circles  of  card,  which  are  sometimes  recommended. 
The  thin  sheet  lead  from  the  Chinese  tea-chests  is  verj-  suitable  for 
punching,  and  as  it  is  not  porous  like  card  it  yields  no  air-bubbles 
by  heat. 

"  D.  Von  Schlechtendal  *  has  described  a  method  by  which  it  would 
appear  that  all  the  characters  of  form  and  color  (?;  may  be  preserved 
in  Aphides  and  other  insects.  The  method  consists  of  a  rapid  death 
and  drving  of  the  insect  by  means  of  a  current  of  heated  air.  The 
Aphis,  previously  attached  to  some  suitable  support,  is  suddenly  and 
momentarily  subjected  to  the  heat  of  a  spirit  or  other  flame,  by 
which  it  is  immediately  killed  and  caused  to  retain  its  natural  posi- 

*EDtomol.  Nachrichten,  iv.  p.  133. 


MOrXTISG  LS SECTS.  305 

tion.  Several  examples  are  then  carefully  roasted  in  a  crnrent  of  hot 
air,  such  as  that  passing  through  an  inclined  glass  tube  duly  n^iade 
hot,  or  dried  on  a  sheet  of  paper  moved  over  a  heated  metal  plate. 

"  "When  dry,  the  specimens  are  mounted  on  c-ard  by  attachment  with 
gum  tragac^nth;  or,  as  Mr.  J.  W.  Douglas  suggests,  more  conven- 
iently on  mica,  called  '  talc  '  in  the  shops,  which,  as  it  is  incombusti- 
ble, is  well  suited  for  a  support  both  before  and  after  drying'. 

"  This  method  is  vouched  for  as  good  by  Drs.  Giebel,  Tascboibeig-, 
flayer,  and  Rudow. 

"  I  have  not  tried  this  roasting  process,  but  it  must  require  sc>me 
address  to  prevent  the  shrivelling  of  wings  in  such  delicately-formed 
insects,  and  to  provide  against  the  bursting  action  of  the  boiling  juices. 

"A  more  complete  liistory  of  the  proc-ess  than  the  foregoing  was 
given  by  Mr.  Douglas  in  18T8. 

"  M.  Lichtenstein  has  many  limes  been  good  enough  to  forward  in 
letters  to  me  preparations  of  Aphides  which  have  been  secured  be- 
tween two  films  of  mica.  The  insect*,  he  explains,  are  immersed  in 
a  solution  of  resin  in  turpentine,  '  a  natural  amber,'  and,  when  all  are 
in  due  position,  the  mica  films  are  placed  over  apertures  in  card,  and 
then  gummed  papers,  similarly  perforated,  are  pressed  upon  them. 
This  arrangement  secures  all  in  their  places. 

■'Methods  and  operations  in  science,  like  events  in  history,  repeat 
themselves.  YMxy  years  ago  films  of  mica  were  used  to  cover  objects 
for  the  microscope,  and  before  the  manufacture  of  the  thin  glass  now 
so  commonly  used  it  admirably  answered  its  purpose.  Under  deep 
magnifying  powers,  such  as  ^  in.,  it  will  be  found  even  now  of 
great  service.  The  mineral  may  be  split  by  the  lanc-et  into  films 
much  thinner  than  glass  can  be  blown  in  a  flat  state.  Small  un- 
scratched  pieces  may  be  selected  which  are  perfectly  transparent,  and 
their  cost  is  quite  trifling. 

"  On  account  of  the  high  refracting  power  of  Canada  balsam,  the 
colors  of  recently-immersed  Aphides  show  themselves  very  brightly; 
and  it  sometimes  happens  that  tints,  quite  lost  through  irradiation  or 
glance  on  the  surfaces,  become  distinct  by  treatment  with  this  resin. 

"  The  bright  colors  and  markings  of  some  species  are  due  to  the  hue 
of  the  internal  juices  of  the  insects.  These  cannot  be  preserved  by 
balsam,  but  it  is  otherwise  with  the  pigments  which  stain  the  some- 
what homy  coverings  of  the  thorax  and  abdomen.  These  colors  art 
persistent."    ("Monog.  British  Aphides,"  iv.    1883)  pp.  lSS-9o.> 

Thomas  W.  Starr's  Method  of  Preparing  and  Moimtiiig.  with  Pressure. 
Insects  Entire  as  Transparent  Objects.* — After  prvxuring  the  insect. 


*  This,  with  the  three  following  notes,  wa«  kindly  communicated 
by  N.  X.  Mason,  Esq. 


306  ENTOMOLOGY. 

place  it  under  a  tumbler  with  a  few  drops  of  ether.  When  dead  wet 
it  with  alcohol  and  place  it  in  'liquor  potassae,'  U.  S.  P.,  and  let  it 
soak  until  the  skin  is  soft,  and  until  on  slight  pressure  the  contents 
of  the  intestine  can  be  pressed  out  through  the  natural  or,  if  neces- 
sary, an  artificial  opening.  This  is  best  done  under  water  in  a  white 
plate. 

When  this  is  elf ected  the  object  is  to  be  cleaned.  Have  a  camel 's- 
hair  brush  in  each  hand;  with  one  hold  the  object,  and  with  the 
other  brush  every  part  of  the  insect  on  both  sides,  float  it  on  to  a 
glass  slide,  and  dispose  each  part  in  a  natural  position,  either  creep- 
ing or  flying.  Cover  this  with  another  glass  slip  of  the  same  size 
and  press  gently  together,  using  only  sufficient  force  to  make  it  as 
thin  as  possible  without  crushing  or  destroying  it.  Confine  the 
glasses  with  the  insect  between  them  with  a  fine  brass  wire,  and 
place  them  in  clean  water  to  remain  24  or  36  hours;  this  will  give  the 
insect  a  position  which  is  not  easily  changed,  and  it  is  therefore 
proper  that  the  position  be  such  as  you  desire  when  the  insect  is 
finished.  Remove  the  wire  and  open  the  glasses  carefully  under 
water  and  float  the  insect  off,  give  it  another  brushing,  and  let  it 
remain  a  few  hours  to  remove  the  potassa.  Transfer  to  a  small  but 
suitable  vessel  containing  the  strongest  alcohol  that  can  be  obtained, 
pursuing  the  same  course  as  with  the  water,  placing  the  specimen 
between  glass  slips  tied  together,  and  let  it  remain  about  24  hours. 

Transfer  to  a  vessel  containing  spirits  of  turpentine;  it  is  to  remain 
in  this,  kept  between  the  glasses,  until  all  the  water  is  removed. 
While  in  the  spirits  of  turpentine,  the  iu.sect  is  to  be  released  several 
times,  and  the  moisture  removed  from  the  glasses,  and  the  insect 
again  confined.  When  no  moisture  is  seen  to  surround  the  insect, 
heat  the  glass  slips  containing  the  insect  over  a  spirit-lamp  until  the 
contained  turpentine  nearly  boils,  when,  if  any  moisture  is  present,  it 
will  show  its  presence  when  the  glasses  are  cold. 

If  free  from  moisture  it  is  ready  for  mounting.  Float  it  onto  a 
suitable  slide  from  the  turpentine,  drop  a  sufficient  quantity  of  bal- 
sam upon  it,  examine  and  see  that  no  foreign  substances  are  present, 
heat  the  cover  slightly,  and  apply  in  the  usual  way.  After  a  day  or 
two  heat  the  slide  moderately  and  press  out  the  surplus  balsam,  and 
place  a  small  weight  upon  the  cover  while  drying.  After  the  lapse 
of  a  suitable  time,  remove  the  surplus  balsam  and  clean  the 
slide. 

In  all  the  operations  the  utmost  cleanliness  is  essential.  The 
liquids  used  should  be  frequently  filtered  and  kept  from  dust,  and  a 
large  share  of  patience  will  be  found  necessary. 

After  sufficient  time  has  been  given  to  allow  the  balsam  to  harden 
so  that  the  cleaning  will  not  displace  the  cover,  remove  the  surplus 


MOUNTING  INSECTS.  307 

from  around  the  cover  glass  witli  a  warm  kuife,  and  then  moisten  a 
soft  tooth-brush  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  alcohol  and  aqua 
ammonia,  and  a  slight  rubbing  will  clean  the  slide  with  very  little 
danger. 

After  removing  the  superfluous  balsam  and  cleaning  the  slide, 
finish  by  spinning  a  ring  around  the  cover  with  the  cement  made  from 
the  following  formula: 

Gum  dammar 75  grains. 

Gum  mastic 45      " 

Canada  balsam,  evaporated  to  dryness 45      " 

Chloroform 180      " 

Spirits  turpentine 100      " 

Mix  and  dissolve. 

Method  of  Preparing  Minute  Entomostraca,  Mites,  Spiders,  Insects, 
etc. — "The  specimens  should  be  killed  by  adding  a  few  drops  of 
osmic  acid  to  the  water;  when  they  fall  to  the  bottom  they  are  to 
be  taken  up  and  placed  in  alcohol  of  30  per  cent,  from  which  they 
are  to  be  transferred  to  alcohol  of  50  per  cent,  then  to  cochineal 
solution  in  70  per  cent  alcohol,  then  washed  repeatedly  in  70  per 
cent  alcohol,  then  placed  in  90  per  cent  alcohol,  and  finally  in  absolute 
alcohol.  Then  a  small  quantity  of  oil  of  cloves  is  poured  into  the 
alcohol,  and  at  the  line  of  juncture  of  the  two  liquids  the  specimens 
become  permeated  with  the  oil.  They  are  then  to  be  transferred  to 
clear  oil  of  cloves,  and  finally  when  perfectly  clear  mounted  in  Canada 
balsam,  or  embedded  in  parathne  and  cut  into  sections.  By  this 
method  specimens  can  be  obtained  with  absolutely  no  shrinking  of 
the  protoplasm."  (M.  M.  Hartog,  Journ.  Royal  Microscopical 
Society,  London.) 

Carbolic  Acid  in  Balsam  Mounting. — Put  the  living  insect  into 
carbolic  acid;*  this  in  a  few  minutesf  clears  the  object,  rendering  it 
transparent  and  apparently  wholly  destitute  of  viscera,  but  exhibiting 
clearly  the  sexual  organs.  Drain  off  the  superfluous  acid  and  mount 
without  pressure  in  moderately  thick  balsam.  The  acid  does  not 
harden  the  object,  but  it  remains  perfectly  flexible  for  a  long  time. 
(C.  M.  Vorce,  Science  Gossip,  June,  1880,  p.  139;  also  Jour.  Roy. 
Micr.  Soc,  1881,  139.) 

Killing  and  Preserving  Insects. — Mr.  G.  W.  Vickers  approves  of 
Mr.  Vorce's  method  stated  above,  and  describes  his  own  mode  of 
procedure.     "  Place  a  drop  of  the  [carbolic]  acid  (pure  crystallized 

*  Liquefied  crystals. — N.  N.  M. 

\  Some  insects  should  remain  for  a  day  or  more. — N.  N.  M. 


308  ENTOMOLOar. 

with  just  sufficient  water  added  to  keep  it  fluid)  on  a  slide,  and  drop 
into  it  the  living  insect;  it  will  be  seen  to  struggle  for  a  second  or 
two,  then  the  limbs,  wings,  and  tongue  become  extended;  it  then 
becomes  beautifully  clear  and  transparent.  The  acid  should  now  be 
drained  away,  a  drop  of  balsam  put  on,  the  cover  applied.  ..." 
(North.  Microscopist,  ii.,  1883,  227.) 

Bleaching  Fluid  for  Insects.— W.  Sargent  recommends  the  follow- 
ing: Hydrochloric  acid,  10  drops;  chlorate  of  potash,  ^  dr.;  water, 
1  oz.  Soak  the  insect  in  it  for  a  day  or  two,  then  wash  well.  (Journ. 
R.  Micr.  Soc,  1883,  151.) 

To  Clear  Objects  for  Balsam  Mounting.— Dr.  J.  J.  Mason  uses  a  mix- 
ture of  carbolic  acid,  one  part,  and  oil  of  turpentine,  four  parts, 
mixed.  When  the  object  is  perfectly  clear,  drain  off  the  superfluous 
mi.xture  and  mount  in  balsam. 

Mounting  Insects  in  Balsam  without  Pressure. — Mr.  H.  Chadwick 
gives  the  following  directions  : 

Preparation. — I.  Soak  the  specimens  in  liquor  potasste  until  they 
are  transparent.  Wash  well  in  distilled  water,  using  a  pipette  and 
camel-hair  pencil.  Transfer  to  50  per  cent  spirit,  then  to  a  small 
quantity  of  pure  spirit  in  a  watch-glass  or  soakiug-bottle,  and  allow 
them  to  macerate.  By  this  method  the  formation  of  air-bubbles  in 
the  interior  of  the  specimens  may  generally  be  avoided. 

II.  Wash  well  in  distilled  water.  Soak  in  pure  spirit  or  alcohol 
for  some  days.  Transfer  to  carbolic  acid  until  sufficiently  trans- 
parent. Then  transfer  to  oil  of  cloves,  but  many  persons  do  not 
consider  this  necessary.  This  method  should  be  used  in  all  cases 
where  the  integument  is  too  opaque  to  allow  light  to  pass  through 
it  before  treatment,  and  it  is  especially  useful  in  the  study  of  the 
muscles. 

Mounting. — Take  a  clean  3x1  slip,  having  a  sunken  cell  in  its 
centre.  Just  inside  the  edge  of  the  cell,  equidistant  from  each 
other,  cement  three  white  glass  beads  with  hardened  balsam.  Put  a 
small  (juantity  of  soft  balsam  in  the  centre  of  the  cell,  and  gently 
warm  it  over  a  spirit-lamp.  Take  the  object,  a  wasp's  or  blow-fly's 
head,  for  example,  and  place  it  upon  the  previously  warmed  balsam, 
arranging  it  in  the  required  position.  Now  take  a  clean  cover-glass, 
the  diameter  of  which  should  be  a  little  less  than  that  of  the  cell,  and 
holding  it  between  the  points  of  a  pair  of  forceps,  place  a  large  drop  of 
balsam  in  its  centre,  and  allow  it  to  fall  upon  the  object.  The  edge 
of  the  cover  should  rest  upon  the  three  beads.  If  the  quantitj^  of 
balsam  under  the  cover-glass  is  not  sufficient  to  fill  up  the  whole  of 
the  space  between  it  and  the  slide,  a  little  more  must  be  allowed  to 
run  in,  and  if  the  object  has  become  displaced,  it  maybe  rearranged 
by  means  of  a  fine  blunt  needle,  introduced  beneath  the  cover-glass. 


MOUNTING  INSECTS.  309 

A  clip  should  be  used  during  the  last  operations,  but  only  to  prevent 
displacement  of  the  cover.  The  slide  must  now  be  put  aside  in  a 
warm  place,  until  the  balsam  is  hard  enough  to  allow  the  super- 
fluous portion  to  be  removed  safely.  Sufficient  balsam  should  be 
left  to  form  a  sloping  edge  around  the  cover-glass,  and  it  should  be 
hardened  for  a  few  days  after  cleaning.  Be  sure  that  the  balsam  is 
quite  hard  before  applying  brown  cement.  The  ease  with  which  an 
object  can  be  rearranged,  or  a  chance  air-bubble  removed,  without 
disturbing  the  cover-glass,  constitutes  the  chief  advantage  of  using 
beads.  A  supply  of  different  sizes  should  be  kept,  and  the  size  used 
must  be  regulated  by  the  thickness  of  the  object.  Pure  balsam  in 
collapsible  t.-bes  is  to  be  strongly  recommended,  on  account  of  the 
nicety  with  which  the  quantity  of  balsam  required  for  mounting  a 
slide  can  be  regulated.  The  neck  of  the  tube  should  be  wiped  with 
a  clean  cloth  moistened  with  benzole  before  the  screw-cap  is  re- 
placed, in  order  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  a  little  balsam  harden- 
ing in  the  screw,  and  so  prevent  the  easy  removal  of  the  cap  when 
next  required.     (Scientific  and  Literary  Gossip.) 

Preparing  and  Mounting  Dissections  of  the  Appendages,  etc. — A.  C. 
Cole's  method  in  dealing  with  the  parts  of  spiders  will  also  apply  to 
insects.  The  spinnerets,  legs,  and  falces  having  been  respectively 
removed  are  placed  separately  in  liq.  pot.  for  24-36  hours ;  then 
soaked  in  water  to  remove  the  potass  ;  then  placed  in  acetic  acid  (in 
which  such  parts  of  insects,  etc.,  may  alwaj^s  be  preserved  until  re- 
quired for  mounting);  then  again  soaked  in  water ;  then  placed  in 
strong  alcohol  for  a  short  time ;  then  cleared  by  means  of  oil  of 
cloves,  and,  lastly,  transferred  to  turpentine,  and  mounted  without 
pressure  in  cells.     (Studies  in  Microscopical  Science,  iii.  sect,  iv.) 

Mounting  Minute  Insects  and  Acari  in  Balsam. — Mr.  A.  D.  Michael 
describes  his  process  as  follows :  He  first  kills  the  creatures  in  hot 
water  or  spirit.  Hard  insects  and  Acari  are  best  killed  in  hot  water, 
which  causes  them  to  expand  their  legs,  but  water  rather  injures 
minute  flies,  and  spirit  is  better  for  them.  Next  wa.sh  the  objects 
thoroughly  in  spirit  and  clean  with  a  badger's  hair,  clean  me- 
chanically and  by  washing  in  spirit.  Place  the  object  on  a  glass 
slip  and  arrange  it  with  the  hair,  leave  it  in  spirit  for  such  a  time 
as  experience  suggests,  tilt  the  slip  so  as  to  drain  off  the  spirit,  but 
not  to  dry  the  object,  which  should  never  be  allowed  to  dry  from  the 
first  process  to  the  final  mounting.  Having  drained  oS.  the  spirit, 
drop  on  the  object  a  little  oil  of  cloves,  which  is  better  than  turpen- 
tine ;  slightly  warm  the  slide  and  put  on  a  thin  cover-glass,  which 
must  be  supported  so  as  not  to  touch  the  object ;  leave  it  until 
thoroughly  soaked.  If  necessary,  remove  to  a  clean  slip  for  the 
final  mount.    It  may  be  necessary  to  arrange  the  object  more  than 


310  ENTOMOLOGY. 

once.  Drain  off  the  oil  of  cloves  and  put  on  a  small  quantity  of 
Canada  balsam,  or  preferably  balsam  and  benzole.  Arrange  the 
creature  on  the  centre  of  the  slide.  Let  the  balsam  harden  a  little, 
then  the  object  will  not  float  off,  as  happens  sometimes  when  a 
quantity  of  balsam  is  used  at  once.  Lower  the  cover  straight  down 
on  the  object ;  do  not  try  to  drive  out  a  wave  of  balsam  as  is  recom- 
mended in  the  text-books.  It  is  better  not  to  put  enough  balsam  at 
tirst  to  fill  the  .space  under  the  cover,  as  the  balsam  supports  the 
cover  if  it  does  not  reach  the  edge;  but  if  the  balsam  reaches  the 
edge  of  the  cover  it  is  apt  to  draw  down  the  cover  and  crush  delicate 
objects.  A  few  pieces  of  thin  glass  to  support  the  cover  are  a  great 
protection  to  the  object,  or  better  still,  a  few  tiny  glass  beads. 
Finish  the  slide  with  a  ring.  Bell's  cement  or  something  of  the  kind, 
but  that  must  not  be  done  unless  the  cover  be  supported  in  some 
way.     (Journ.  Qnek.  Micr.  Club,  i.  (1883),  pp.  241-2.) 

Sections  of  the  Brain. — In  studying  the  brain  of  insects  it  is  better 
to  begin  with  that  of  some  of  the  lower  forms,  such  as  the  cockroach 
or  locust,  as  they  are  on  a  simpler  plan  than  that  of  ants,  wasps,  and 
bees.  In  the  sections  of  the  brain,  made  by  Mr.  N.  N.  Mason  in 
1879,  it  was  thought  better  to  cut  the  entire  head  so  that  the  muscles 
and  integument  should  support  the  soft  parts  within,  including  the 
brain.  The  head  therefore  was  cut  with  the  microtome  into  sections 
from  j^^  to  yjyVir  inch  in  thickness,  after  having  previously  been 
hardened  in  absolute  alcohol  for  two  days  or  more,  and  then  kept  in 
melted  paraffine  for  one  or  two  or  more  days.  It  was  then  embedded 
in  a  preparation  of  parafiine,  sweet  oil  and  wax,  or,  in  some  cases,  in 
soap.  After  the  sections  were  cut  they  were  stained  with  picro- 
carmine,  or  with  osmic  acid  and  picrocarmine.  Finally,  the  slices 
were  mounted  in  glycerine  jelly  for  study  under  the  microscope. 
The  sections  were  in  most  cases  frontal  ones,  namely^  cut  transversely 
from  the  front  of  the  head  or  brain  backwards,  while  a  few  were 
longitudinal  (vertical  or  sagittal)  ones,  viz.,  cut  parallel  to  the  median 
line  of  the  body. 

M.  H.  Viallanes,  in  his  work  on  the  brain  of  the  locust  ((Edipoda 
and  Caloptenus),  publi-shed  in  1887,  describes  his  method  as  follows; 
He  separates  the  head  from  the  living  animal,  then  with  the  scissors 
removes  the  labrum  and  mouth-parts  and  all  of  the  integument  be- 
hind the  compound  eyes.  He  then  removes  the  muscles  of  the  man- 
dibles, the  tracheae  and  fatty  masses,  in  order  to  expose  the  posterior 
aspect  of  the  brain. 

He  then  plunges  the  head  thus  prepared  in  a  vessel  containing  the 
following  solution:  Distilled  water,  100;  osmic  acid,  0.02;  acetic 
acid,  0.50.  At  the  end  of  a  few  minutes  the  brain  is  of  a  consistence 
sutticieut  to  allow  the  dis.section   to  be   finished  without   fear  of 


CUTTING  AND  MOUNTING  SECTIONS.  311 

changing  its  shape.  He  then  allows  the  reagent  to  act  upon  the 
brain,  carefully  isolated,  until  it  assumes  a  deep  gray  tint.  It  is 
then  soaked  several  hours  in  distilled  water,  but  may  be  fixed  by 
treating  it  successively  with  alcohol  diluted  one  third,  alcohol  at  70°, 
and  alcohol  at  90°.  Pieces  were  thus  obtained  very  evenly  impreg- 
nated throughout  their  entire  mass  with  osmium. 

In  most  cases  he  colored  the  nuclei  bj'  placing  the  piece  .some 
hours  in  carmine  and  alum  decidedly  acidulated  with  acetic  acid. 

On  being  taken  out  of  this  stain  and  washed,  the  brain  is  dehydra- 
ted, embedded  in  paratfine,  and  cut  into  sections  ^^^  mm.  in  thick- 
ness, and  mounted  serially.  Besides  frontal,  lateral,  and  sagittal, 
oblique  sections  were  made. 

Signor  G.  Cuccato,  in  preparing  the  brain  of  Orthoptera,  snips  off 
the  head  of  the  insect  with  a  pair  of  scissors,  and  pins  it  on  cork. 
Thus  fixed,  the  head  is  immersed  in  0.75  per  cent  NaCl  solution. 
Then,  with  the  aid  of  scissors  and  forceps,  the  chitinous  sheath  and 
the  eyes  are  removed  from  the  supra-cesophageal  ganglion,  and  the 
specimen  removed  to  a  watch-glass  full  of  salt  solution,  wherein  the 
tracheae  and  muscles  are  removed.  After  a  short  time  the  object  is 
placed  for  forty-eight  hours  in  Flemming's  mixture,  and  then,  having 
been  well  washed,  the  rest  of  the  muscles  and  the  fat  are  removed 
from  the  ganglion.  It  is  next  put  in  36  per  cent  spirit,  and  gradu- 
ally hardened.  After  dehj'dration  it  is  embedded  in  paratfine.  The 
sections  were  fixed  down  by  Mayer's  method,  and  stained  with  a 
saturated  water}'  solution  of  acid  fuchsin.  The  fixative  used  was 
Rabl's  solution  (chromo-formic  acid  and  platinum  chloride). 
(Journ.  Roy.  Micr.  Soc,  Dec.  18S7,  p.  1045.) 

Preparing  the  Sympathetic  Nervous  System  of  the  Cockroach. — Dr. 
M.  Kostler  pursued  the  following  mode  in  examining  that  of  Peri- 
planeta  orientalis: — The  fresh  parts  of  the  insect  to  be  examined  were 
held  over  osmic  acid  for  two  or  three  minutes,  washed,  and  trans- 
ferred to  weak  alcohol.  The}'  were  then  stained  with  picro-carmine 
for  twenty-four  hours  beneath  the  bell-jar  of  an  air-pump,  and  were 
found  to  be  perfectly  hardened.  When  all  traces  of  alcohol  had 
been  removed  by  washing  they  were  placed  in  filtered  white  of  egg. 
At  the  end  of  about  two  hours  the  albumen  was  coagulated,  first 
by  weak  and  then  by  absolute  alcohol,  warmed  to  40°  C,  so  as  to 
bring  about  as  even  a  coagulation  as  possible.  The  object  can  then 
be  treated  in  the  usual  way  with  oil  of  cloves,  embedded  in  parafline, 
and  cut  with  a  microtome.  (Zeits.  fiir  Wissen.  Zoologie,  xxxix. 
1883,  573;  also  Journ. Roy.  Micr.  Soc,  1885,  538.) 

Making  Sections  through  and  Bleaching  the  Eyes  of  Insects. — Dr.  S. 
J.  Hickson's  method  is  as  follows;  "For  making  sections  through 
the  eye  of  Musca  vomUoria  I  have  found  it  best  to  dissect  away  the 


312  ENTOMOLOGY. 

posterior  wall  of  the  cranium  of  the  fresh  insect  and  then  to  expose  it 
to  the  fumes  of  1  percent  osmicacid  solution  for  forty  minutes,  then 
to  wash  in  60  per  cent  spirit  for  a  few  minutes,  and  finally  to  harden 
in  absolute  alcohol.  Crania  thus  prepared  may  be  cut  into  tine 
sections  by  the  automatic  microtome,  and  stained  in  hoematoxylin  or 
borax-carmine.  With  most  insects,  however,  I  have  found  it  im- 
possible to  use  this  microtome,  owing  to  the  hardness  of  the  cliitin  of 
the  cranium  and  of  the  mouth-appendages.  In  such  cases  I  have 
used  a  Jung's  microtome,  with  the  razor  set  so  as  to  give  a  long 
sweep  at  each  stroke,  and  the  sections  carefully  removed  from  the 
razor,  and  mounted  one  by  one. 

"I  have  tried  various  methods  for  depigmenting  the  eyes,  such  as 
bleaching-powder,  nitric  acid,  chlorine,  etc.,  but  the  best  is  that  of 
exposing  the  sections  when  cut  to  the  action  of  nitrous  fumes.  This 
is  done  in  the  following  manner:  The  sections  are  fixed  in  position 
on  the  slide  by  Mayer's  albumin  and  glycerine  solution,  and  when 
the  paraftine  has  been  removed  by  turpentine  and  the  turpentine 
driven  off  by  absolute  alcohol,  the  slide  is  inverted  over  a  capsule 
containing  90  per  cent  spirit,  to  which  a  few  drops  of  strong  nitric 
acid  have  been  added.*  Copious  nitrous  fumes  are  given  off  and  the 
pigment  dissolves.  The  action  can  be  stopped  at  any  moment  bj'' 
washing  with  neutral  spirit,  and  when  the  washing  is  complete  the 
sections  can  be  stained  in  hoematoxylin  or  any  other  solution. 

"  For  teasing  the  best  solution  is  chloral  hydrate.  I  leave  the  eye 
or  optic  tract  in  5  per  cent  solution  of  chloral  hydrate  for  twenty- 
four  hours,  and  then  tease  with  needles  and  mount  in  glycerine.  In 
some  cases  I  have  made  very  satisfactory  preparations  by  fixing  the 
teased  tissues  to  the  slide  with  albumen  and  glycerine  solution  and 
then  wasliing  with  spirit  and  staining  in  ,the  ordinary  way,  or  stain- 
ing after  depigmenting  with  nitrous  fumes. 

"I  have  tried  various  kinds  of  ha;matoxylin  stains,  but  the  solu- 
tion which  gives  the  best  results,  and  is  in  every  way  the  most  satisfac- 
tory, is  one  which  I  have  made  by  following  Mitchell's  instruc- 
tions, with  a  few  additional  precautions.  I  will  describe  here  the 
mode  in  which  I  now  make  haimatoxylin  stain:  Take  56  grams 
of  the  logwood  extract  and  thoroughly  pound  it  in  a  mortar.  Then 
place  it  on  a  filter,  and  pour  about  a  litre  and  a  half  of  ordinary  tap- 
water  through  it.     The  filtrate  may  be  thrown  away  and  the  residue 


*  Prof.  Grenacher,  according  to  Carri^re,  besides  one  with  nitric 
acid,  employed  the  following  mixture  :  Glycerine,  1  part ;  alcohol 
(80  per  cent),  3  parts ;  and  hydrochloric  acid,  2-3  per  cent.  The 
preparation  remains  in  this  mixture  until  the  pigment  changes  color 
and  becomes  diffuse.     (Amer.  Naturalist,  1886,  89.) 


CUTTING  SECTIONS  OF  THE  EYE.  313 

allowed  to  dry.  In  the  mean  time  prepare  a  solution  of  alum  as  fol- 
lows :  Take  25  grams  of  alum,  and  after  it  has  been  thoroughly 
pounded  in  a  mortar  pour  it  into  250  cc.  of  distilled  water.  To 
this  solution  add  strong  potash  until  a  precipitate  is  formed,  which 
will  not  dissolve  upon  stirring  and  standing. 

"  Pour  the  alum  solution  thus  made  on  to  the  hsematoxyliu 
residue,  and  allow  it  to  macerate  for  three  or  four  days  in  a 
warm  room.  Then  filter  the  htematoxylin  solution  into  a  bottle 
provided  with  a  closely-fitting  stopper,  and  add  to  it  10  cc.  of  pure 
glycerine  and  100  cc.  of  90  per  cent  spirit.  (The  residue  need  not 
be  thrown  away,  for  it  can  be  macerated  again  with  alum  solution 
for  a  week  or  more,  and  a  good  strong  stain  obtained  as  before.) 
When  the  solution  is  thus  made  it  should  be  well  shaken  and  allowed 
to  stand  for  some  weeks  before  being  used.  This  solution  of  hema- 
toxylin improves  considerably  with  age.  The  oldest  I  have  was 
made  about  twelve  months  ago,  and  is  by  far  the  best. 

"  The  hsematoxyliu  stain  produced  by  this  recipe  possesses  several 
advantages  over  others.  In  most  cases  it  differentiates  the  tissues 
admirably;  nuclei  stain  deeply,  cell  protoplasm  faintly;  it  seems  to 
last  a  long  time  without  showing  signs  of  fading,  and,  as  it  pene- 
trates well,  it  is  very  useful  for  staining  in  bulk." 

Dr.  J.  S.  Kingsley's*  method  of  preparing  and  cutting  the  eggs  and 
embryo  eyes  of  the  shrimp,  which  will  also  apply  to  the  embryonic 
eyes  of  insects,  is  as  follows: 

The  eyes  were  hardened  by  means  of  Perenyi's  fluid,  followed  by 
alcohol  of  increasing  strength,  a  process  which  works  well  with 
almost  all  Arthropod  tissues.  In  most  instances,  they  were  stained 
entire  with  Grenadier's  alum-carmine,  though  in  some  instances 
Kleinenberg's  htemato.xylin  or  Grenacher's  borax-carmine  were  em- 
ployed In  the  later  stages,  where  the  deposition  of  pigment  in  the 
eye  interfered  with  a  clear  vision  of  all  the  structures  concerned,  the 
following  course  was  adopted :  The  eyes  were  sectioned  as  usual, 
the  sections  being  fastened  to  the  slide  with  Mayer's  albumen  fix- 
ative. After  wetting  the  paralfine  and  allowing  the  sections  to  drop 
into  the  adhesive  mixture,  the  embedding  material  was  dissolved  in 
turpentine,  and  this  in  turn  was  washed  away  with  alcohol  (95  per 
cent).  The  sections  were  then  covered  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts 
of  nitric  acid  and  95  per  cent  alcohol,  which  was  allowed  to  remain 
until  the  pigment  was  removed, — a  process  requiring  from  ten  to 
fifteen  minutes.  The  slide  was  next  washed  with  strong  alcohol, 
and  the  sections  stained  deeply  with  Kleinenberg's  hsematoxyliu,  and 

*  Journal  of  Morphology,  Boston,  1887,  49. 


314  ENTOMOLOGY. 

the  excess  then  removed  with  acid  alcohol  in  the  usual  manner. 
The  sections  were  then  mounted  in  balsam. 

In  order  to  demonstrate  the  presence  of  the  corneal  hypodermis  in 
the  facetted  Arthropod  eye,  and  the  connection  of  the  so  called 
"  rhabdom"  with  the  crystalline  cone-cells,  Mr.  Patten  says  it  is  neces- 
sary to  resort  to  maceration.  In  most  cases  it  is  hardly  possible  to 
determine  the  important  points  by  means  of  sections  alone. 

The  ommateum  of  fresh  eyes,  treated  for  twenty -four  hours  or  more 
with  weak  sulphuric  or  chromic  acid,  or  in  Ml'iller's  fluid,  may  be 
easily  removed,  leaving  the  corneal  facets  with  the  underlying  hypo- 
dermis  uninjured.  Surface  views  of  the  cornea  prepared  in  this  way 
show  the  number  and  arrangement  of  the  corneal  cells  on  each  facet. 
In  macerating  the  cells  of  the  ommateum  it  is  not  possible  to  give  any 
definite  directions,  for  the  results  vary  greatly  with  different  eyes,  and 
it  is  also  necessary  to  modify  the  treatment  according  to  the  special 
point  to  be  determined.  It  is  as  essential  to  isolate  the  individual  cells 
as  it  is  to  study  cross  and  longitudinal  sections  of  the  pigmented  eyes. 
In  determining  the  number  and  arrangement  of  the  cells  and  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  pigment,  the  latter  method  is  indispensable;  it  should 
not  be  replaced  by  the  study  of  depigmented  sections,  which  .should 
be  resorted  to  in  special  cases  only. 

In  fixing  the  tis.sues  of  the  eye,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  place  the  de- 
tached head  in  the  hardening  fluid;  antennae  and  mouth-parts  should 
be  cut  off  as  close  to  the  eye  as  possible,  in  order  to  allow  free  and 
immediate  access  of  the  fluids  to  the  eye.  When  it  is  possible  to  do  so 
with  safety,  the  head  should  be  cut  open,  and  all  unnecessary  tissue 
and  hard  parts  removed.  With  abundant  material,  one  often  finds 
individuals  in  which  it  is  possible  to  separate,  uninjured,  the  hardened 
tissues  of  the  eye  from  the  cuticula.  This  is,  of  course,  a  great  ad- 
vantage in  cutting  sections.  The  presence  of  a  hard  cuticula  is  often 
a  serious  difficulty  in  sectioning  the  eyes  of  Arthropods.  This  dif- 
ficulty can  be  diminished  somewhat  by  the  use  of  the  hardest  par- 
affine,  and  by  placing  the  broad  surface  of  the  cuticula  at  right  angles 
to  the  edge  of  the  knife  when  sectioning.  Ribbon-sections  cannot  be 
made  with  very  hard  paraffine,  but  it  is  often  necessary  to  sacrifice 
this  advantage  in  order  to  obtain  very  good  sections.  (Roy.  Mic. 
Journ.,  Aug.  1887.) 

Expanding  and  Mounting  the  Tongue  of  the  House-  and  Blow-fly. — 
C.  M.  Vorce  remarks  that  if  the  head  of  a  living  fly  be  cut  off,  the 
tongue  will  usually  retract;  pressure  on  the  head  will  expand  the 
tongue,  but  unless  it  be  secured  by  some  means  before  the  pressure  on 
the  head  is  relea.sed,  it  is  apt  to  wholly  or  partly  retract  again.  "  If 
only  the  tip  is  wanted,  it  is  easily  secured  by  placing  the  severed  head 
on  a  clean  slip  and  pressing  with  a  needle  till  the  tongue  is  fully 


MOUNTING  PARTS  OF  INSECTS.  315 

expanded,  when  a  drop  of  turpentine  is  applied,  a  cover  laid  on  the 
tongue,  and  a  clip  applied  before  the  pressure  is  removed  from  the 
tongue.  To  secure  the  whole  tongue,  split  one  end  of  a  small  stick 
for  an  inch  or  so,  and  holding  the  split  open  by  a  knife- blade,  place 
the  severed  head  in  the  cleft  with  the  top  downward,  and,  withdraw- 
ing the  knife-blade,  allow  the  stick  to  close  upon  the  head,  when  it 
will  fully  distend  the  tongue.  Now  dip  the  head  and  tongue  in  tur- 
pentine, and  leave  it  immersed  for  a  few  days,  when  it  will  be  found 
well  cleaned,  still  perfectly  distended,  and  can  be  released  from  the 
stick  or  cut  from  the  head  without  danger  of  its  collapsing.  Mounted 
in  a  cell  in  balsam,  it  is  a  truly  beautiful  object."  (Amer.  Month. 
Micr.  Journ.,  1884,  12.) 

A.  L.  Woodward  immerses  the  living  fly  in  alcohol,  "and  with 
perfectly  satisfactory  results.  At  the  moment  of  death  the  tongue  is 
forcibly  protruded  to  its  entire  length.  Even  the  short  proboscis  of 
the  house-fly  is  satisfactorily  displayed."  (Amer.  Month.  Micr. 
Journ.,  1883,  339.) 

Mr.  H.  Sharp  mounts  the  lobes  of  the  proboscis  of  the  blow-fly, 
without  pressure,  in  a  solution  of  biniodide  of  mercury  in  one  of 
iodide  of  potassium  (both  saturated  solutions),  which  brings  out  the 
details  of  the  structure  of  the  pseudotracheae.  "  I  have  several  pro- 
bosces  of  blow-flies  mounted  in  balsam,  with  and  without  pressure, 
but  there  is  nothing  to  be  seen  of  the  membrane  in  any  of  them;  I  can 
just  see  it  in  a  glycerine  mount,  now  that  I  know  what  to  look  for;  ^ 
but  the  glycerine  does  not  make  it  visible  like  the  mercury  solution."  \- 
(Journ.  Roy.  Micr.  Journ.,  1884,  1003;  1885,  733.)  X 

Microscopic  Sections  of  the  Proboscis  of  Flies,  Bugs,  and  Bees. — The      111 
excellent  work  done  by  Dimmock  on  the  mouth-parts  of  the  mosquito      u-  ^ 
and  other  flies,  by  Kraepelin  on  those  of  the  fly,  flea,  and  Hemiptera,      O 
was  chiefly  by  means  of  microscopic  sections.     In  order  to  ascertain      ^  f 
whether  the  pseudotrachese  of  the  fly's  labella  are  hollow  or  not,       '^ 
Dimmock  fed  the  fly  with  a  mixture  of  sugar  and  gum  arable,  colored 
with  carmine,  then  plunging  it  suddenly  into  strong  alcohol  to  fix  the  I 

colored  solution  in  its  mouth-parts.  Mr.  Cheshire,  before  cutting 
sections  of  the  bees  and  other  honey-feeding  insects,  recommends 
that  the  insect  to  be  operated  upon  should  be  kept  fasting  for  some 
time,  and  then  fed  on  honey  mixed  with  gelatine  impregnated  with 
some  highly  colored  dye;  the  insect  should  be  immediately  decapi- 
tated, and  the  head  rapidly  cooled  and  then  embedded  in  gelatine,  and 
the  section  cut  by  means  of  the  microtome.  The  mouth-passage  is 
then  easily  seen  from  the  presence  of  the  dye. 

Sections  of  the  Ovipositor  or  Sting. — According  to  Mr.  J.  W.  Hyatt, 
the  insect  or  organ  is  placed  in  alcohol  until  it  is  thoroughly  perme- 
ated, and  then  removed  to  a  clear  alcoholic  solution  of  shellac,  in 


u. 

o 


316  ENTOMOLOGY. 

wliich  it  may  remain  for  a  day  or  two.  Fit  a  cylinder  of  soft  wood 
into  the  well  of  the  section-cutter;  split  this  cylinder  through  the 
middle,  and  cut  a  groove  in  one  or  both  of  the  half-cylinders  sulti- 
ciently  large  to  admit  the  object  without  pressure;  put  the  two  pieces 
together  with  plenty  of  thick  shellac,  and  tie  them  with  a  thread. 
When  the  shellac  is  quite  hard,  which  will  be  the  case  in  a  day  or 
two,  place  the  cylinder  in  the  section-cutter,  and,  after  soaking  the 
wood  with  warm  water,  sections  the  5^5  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  or 
less,  may  readily  be  made. 

Should  the  shellac  prove  so  opaque  as  to  interfere  with  a  proper 
examination,  a  drop  of  borax  solution  will  immediately  remove  this 
difficulty.     (Amer.  Month.  Micr.  Journ.,  i.  (1880)  p.  8.) 

Mounting  Gizzards  of  Insects. — Dr.  T.  J.  Sturt  kills  the  specimen 
with  a  drop  of  benzine,  cuts  off  the  extreme  end  of  the  hind  body, 
removes  the  head,  cuts  off  the  whole  intestine,  and  puts  it  in  a  1  oz. 
vial  with  five  or  ten  drops  of  liquid  potash.  After  it  has  stood  about 
half  an  hour,  partly  fill  with  water  and  shake  it  well  to  detach  the 
muscular  coat  and  tracheae;  then  slit  it  up,  wash,  and  adjust  on  a 
slide.  Drain  away  any  moisture,  apply  a  drop  of  carbolic  acid,  and 
put  on  the  thin  glass.  After  a  few  minutes  this  will  absorb  all 
moisture  and  render  it  quite  transparent.  If  it  does  not,  put  a  drop 
of  acid  at  the  edge  and  tilt  the  slide  to  drive  off  the  first  acid;  then 
put  a  little  balsam  on  the  edge,  tilt  the  slide,  warming  it  to  render  the 
balsam  more  limpid,  and  it  will  gradually  take  the  place  of  the  acid, 
the  lines  of  demarcation  between  the  two  being  distinctly  visible. 
(English  Mechanic,  1882,  282.) 

Preparation  of  the  Intestine  of  Insects. — According  to  Dr.  J.  Frenzel, 
chromic  acid  is  not  suitable  for  tlie  examination  of  the  intestine  of 
Arthropoda.  A  mixture  of  nitric  acid  and  an  alcoholic  sublimate 
solution  gave  satisfactory  results.  The  strength  of  the  alcohol  and 
the  amount  of  sublimate  in  solution  do  not  appear  to  matter.  The 
author  used  80  per  cent,  alcohol  with  sublimate  half  saturated.  No 
particular  caution  is  necessary  as  to  the  amount  of  acid;  a  drop  too 
much  or  too  little  doing  no  damage.  To  the  above  solution  a  drop  of 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid  is  added  to  every  one  or  two  cubic  centi- 
metres. The  presence  of  this  acid  induces  a  quicker  penetration  of 
t-he  preservative  fluid  into  the  tissues,  and  hinders  the  formation  of 
insoluble  mercurial  compounds.  The  more  acid  the  solution  and 
the  smaller  the  piece  of  tissue  the  shorter  the  time  it  is  left  in  the 
fluid.  For  pieces  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  five  to  ten  minutes  are  quite 
sufficient.  After  hardening  in  sublimate,  alcohol  is  advantageous. 
The  tissue  is  washed  and  left  in  90  per  cent  alcohol.  (Archiv  filr 
Micr.  Anat.,  1885,  229.) 


PREPARATION  OF  INSECT  SPIRACLES.  317 

Preparation  of  Insect  Spiracles.* — Mr.  F.  Dienelt  remarks  that  in 
most  beetles  the  spiracles  are  found  on  the  upper  part  of  the  abdomen. 
The  insect  should  be  turned  on  its  back  and  cut  across  the  thorax 
close  to  the  abdomen;  then  turn  again,  and  insert  a  sharp  knife  into 
the  opening  made,  and  cut  round  the  whole  abdomen.  As  soon  as 
there  is  room,  insert  a  small  stick  of  soft  wood  sharpened  to  a  flat 
point,  by  means  of  which  the  object  can  be  held  securely  while  cut- 
ting. All  the  cutting  should  be  done  on  the  lower  side,  so  that  a 
margin  is  left  on  the  upper  part,  which  can  be  trimmed  easily  after 
the  object  has  become  softened  in  liquor  potassge.  Steeping  the  in- 
sect in  this  fluid  for  a  couple  of  hours  will  destroy  all  the  viscera. 
Now  hold  the  part  down  with  a  softened  stick,  which  for  this  purpose 
is  far  superior  to  mounting  needles,  and  with  a  camel-hair  pencil 
remove  the  viscera  and  transfer  the  object  to  rain  water,  removing 
this  two  or  three  times  to  insure  cleansing  and  to  remove  the  last  trace 
of  potash.  Keep  on  brushing  until  it  is  certain  that  the  object  is  clean, 
and  then  trim  the  edges  to  suit  before  a  final  washing.  If  it  be  desired 
to  mount  the  tracheae  in  situ,  greater  care  is  necessary  in  treating,  but 
they  show  very  well  through  the  skin.  Or,  after  most  of  tbe  viscera 
have  been  removed,  the  tracheae  can  be  torn  by  a  sawing  motion  with 
the  back  of  the  knife  from  the  spiracles  and  mounted  separate.  In 
mounting  larvae  entire,  they  should  be  left  in  liquor  potassae  for  a 
longer  time — even  a  whole  day — without  injury.  In  cleaning  it  is 
necessary  to  keep  them  in  the  position  in  which  they  are  to  be  mounted. 
Larvae  of  the  Lepidoptera  show  best  when  mounted  on  the  side.  In 
preparing  these,  hold  the  larva  under  water  with  the  pointed  stick, 
and  clear  out  the  viscera  with  a  brush  through  the  anal  opening  by  a 
rolling  motion.  After  a  start  has  been  made  the  process  takes  but  a 
short  time.  Larvae  will  stand  considerable  pressure  in  cleaning,  but 
gentle  manipulation  of  course  answers  best,  especially  in  those  cov- 
ered with  hair.  It  is  best  to  commence  with  the  largest  beetles  or 
larvae  one  can  find.  Larvae  too  large  to  be  mounted  entire  ought  to 
be  opened  along  the  back  to  give  the  liquor  free  access. 

Twenty-seven  grains  of  potassa  f usa  to  one  ounce  of  water  acts  but 
slowl  on  the  chitinous  parts  of  insects,  but  very  promptly  on  the 
viscera.  It  is  best  kept  in  a  paper-covered  bottle,  to  exclude  the  light. 
(Journ.  Roy.  Mic.  Soc,  August,  1887.) 

Mounting  of  Tracheae. — Mr.  F.  T.  Hazlewood  dissects  out  the  soft 
parts  and  spreads  them  on  a  glass  slide,  letting  them  dry  perfectly. 
He  then  with  a  pencil-brush  gives  them  a  good  coating  of  collodion, 
after  which  he  melts  a  little  hard  pure  balsam  in  a  test-tube  and  puts 
it  on  the  object  with  a  cover-glass  applied  at  once.     The  intestines, 

*  The  Microscope,  vii.  (1887)  pp.  102-3. 


818  ENTOMOLOGY. 

ganglia,  and  the  brain  are  in  this  way  finely  shown,  the  brain  reveal- 
ing the  very  abundant  ramifications  of  the  tracheae,  especially  the  im- 
mense parallel  branches  situated  between  the  rods  of  the  eyes. 
{Psyche,  iv.  253.) 

Mounting  Legs,  etc.,  of  Insects. — Mr.  R.  A.  R.  Bennett,  in  regard 
to  this  topic,  which  will  also  apply  to  large  antennae,  palpi,  etc., 
remarks:  The  chief  difficulty  is  the  appearance  of  air-bubbles  in  the 
object  after  it  has  been  mounted.  To  avoid  this,  there  is  a  little 
dodge  not  mentioned  in  most  books.  When  the  leg  is  taken  out  of 
the  turpentine,  instead  of  placing  it  at  once  on  the  slide,  boil  it  for  a 
few  moments  in  some  balsam,  kept  for  the  purpose  in  another  tube. 
While  it  is  being  boiled  the  air  will  escape,  and  the  balsam  will  take 
its  place.  There  will  therefore  be  not  nearly  so  much  chance  of  air- 
bubbles  arising  when  the  object  is  mounted.  Of  course  this  would  be 
rather  rough  treatment  for  some  objects;  but  with  the  legs  of  insects 
(especially  such  as  Dytiscus  margindlis)  it  generally  answers  admirably, 
and  .saves  a  vast  deal  of  trouble.     (English  Mechanic,  1883,  253.) 

Mounting  the  Skin  of  Caterpillars. —E.  E.  Jackson  soaks  the  speci- 
men in  acetic  acid  for  ten  days,  then  opens  the  body  carefully  with 
scissors  from  anus  to  mouth,  and  washes  it  in  water.  He  then  soaks 
it  in  weak,  afterwards  in  strong,  alcohol,  following  with  oil  of  cloves, 
turpentine,  and  balsam.     (The  Microscope,  1884,  133.) 

Dissection  and  Preparation  of  the  Spermatic  Filaments. — F.  R. 
Cheshire  proceeds  in  the  following  manner:  "  Secure  a  drone  (not 
newly  hatched)  as  he  is  perambulating  the  combs,  open  the  body,  re- 
move the  vesicula,  break  one  end,  and,  with  the  forceps,  apply  for  a 
moment  the  ruptured  part  to  the  surface  of  some  glass  covers  upon 
which  a  small  quantity  of  water  has  been  placed  (one  vesicula  will 
give  a  supply  for  a  dozen  slides);  leave  to  dry,  keeping  from  dust; 
warm  in  the  flame  of  a  spirit-lamp  to  set  the  albumen,  pour  on  each 
three  or  four  drops  of  watery  solution  of  Spiller's  purple,  and  after 
live  minutes  wash,  dry,  and  mount  in  Canada  balsam.  For  critical 
examination  with  high  powers,  spermatozoa  should  be  mounted  in 
glycerine.  If  staining  be  desired,  a  minute  quantity  of  the  purple 
added  to  the  glycerine  will  accomplish  it,  as  in  a  few  weeks  the  sper 
matozoa  will  have  absorbed  every  trace  of  the  dye.  ("Bees  and 
Bee  keeping,"  201.) 

Prof.  V.  la  Valette  St.  George  recommends,  for  the  examination  of 
the  spermatic  elements  of  the  small  cockroach  {Blatta  germanica,  or 
Croton  bug)  a  fluid  which  unites  the  properties  of  not  being  harmful 
to  cells  anil  that  of  staining  certain  cell-parts  deeply.  This  is  iodized 
serum,  rubbed  in  with  dahlia  and  fiKored.  The  amniotic  fluid  can 
thus  le  replaced  by  another  indirierent  fluid.  Dilution  of  pure 
nuclear  staining;  media  with  iodized  serum,  did  not  t?ive  favorable 


CUTTING  AND  MOUNTING  EGGS.  319 

results.  For  fixing  the  tissues  the  author  used  the  mixtures  recom- 
mended by  Gilson  and  Carnoy,  and  with  the  same  result,  and  also 
Flemming's  fluid.  (Archiv  fur  Mikr.  Anat. ,  1886,  1;  also  Journ. 
Roy.  Micr.  Soc,  1886,  590,  1073.) 

Making  Sections  of  Eggs. — The  eggs  should,  according  tio  Bobret- 
sky's  method,  be  placed,  when  alive,  for  a  short  time  in  nearly  boiling 
water,  and  then  hardened  in  bichromate  of  potash.  They  may  be 
stained  in  picrocarmine  or  in  hsematoxylin,  and  embedded  for  cut- 
ting in  parafline  or  coagulated  albumen.  Patten  placed  the  eggs  of 
Trichoptera  in  cold  water,  raising  the  temperature  very  gradually  to 
about  80°  C,  or  when  they  became  hard  and  white;  then  removed  to 
20  per  cent  alcohol,  which  was  increased  by  10  per  cent  once  or  twice 
a  da^''  until  reaching  full  strength  (96  per  cent).  They  were  stained 
with  Kleinenberg's  haematoxylin  and  a  70  per  cent  solution  of  cochi- 
neal, and  embedded  in  paraflBne  after  being  claritied  in  benzole  for 
thirty  minutes. 

Witlaczil  examined  the  embryos  of  the  viviparous  Aphides  in  a  weak 
salt  solution  (1.^  per  cent),  in  which  they  live  for  about  an  hour.  The 
early  stages  in  the  development  of  the  eggs  may  be  best  seen  after 
treatment  with  hydrochloric  acid  (3  per  cent),  or  acetic  acid,  as  these 
reagents  partially  dissolve  the  yolk  elements,  rendering  the  preparation 
more  transparent;  but  the  later  stages  are  rendered  more  opaque  by 
this  treatment. 

Eggs  gradually  hardened  in  alcohol  and  then  cut  and  stained  on  the. 
slide  with  picrocarmine  or  haematoxylin  often  give  good  sections. 
Kowalev.sky's  .sections,  made  before  the  days  of  microtomes,  were 
cut  by  hand,  the  eggs  having  been,  after  being  hardened,  embedded  in 
paraffine  and  cut  with  a  razor. 

Dr.  F.  Stuhlman*  in  the  examination  of  the  eggs  of  insects, 
spiders,  Myriopods,  and  Peripatus,  examined  fresh  objects  in  0.75 
per  cent  salt  solution,  to  which  is  sometimes  added  weak  acetic  and 
methyl-green  acetic  acid.  The  foregoing  was  only  suitable  for 
young  eggs,  as  older  ones  are  too  opaque.  As  a  fixative,  a  cold  con- 
centrated sublimate  solution  proved  the  best.  Water,  83  per  cent 
alcohol,  and  hot  sublimate  solution  were  not  so  useful.  The  cold 
sublimate  fixed  in  5  to  10  minutes.  The  preparations  were  then  thor- 
oughly washed  ;  a  few  drops  of  tincture  of  iodine  hastened  the  pro- 
cess.. Then  60  per  cent  spirit,  and  finally  absolute  alcohol.  The 
chorion  is  perforated  with  a  fine  needle,  but  the  upper  pole  is  to  be 
avoided.  Ovaries  are  placed  for  several  hours  in  chloroform,  then 
from  one  to  three   days  (according  to  .size)  in  paraffine  at  about 

*  Ber.  Naturf.  Gesell.  Freiburg,  i.  B.  I.  (1886);  Journ.  Roy.  Micr. 
Soc,  April,  1887. 


320  ENTOMOLOGY. 

55°  C.  The  embedding  mass  is  rapidly  cooled.  The  sections  are 
stuck  on  with  a  thin  layer  of  Mayer's  fluid.  The  author  states  that 
fresh  albumen  mass  stains  less  easily  than  the  older.  The  stains 
used  were  Grenacher's  borax-carmine,  Weigert  and  Ranvier's  picro- 
carmine,  and  Flemming's  haematoxylin.  The  author  recommends 
double  staining  with  picrocarmine  and  haematox5rlin  ;  weak  staining 
first  with  picrocarmine  and  afterwards  with  the  logwood.  The  dye 
is  then  extracted  with  acidulated  alcohol  until  a  red  hue  appears; 
the  sections  are  then  transferred  to  ammoniacal  alcohol  until  the 
blue  color  reappears.  In  order  to  obtain  various  shades  of  color  the 
author  advises  to  stain  about  f  of  the  sections  {sic)  with  picrocarmine, 
and  then  to  draw  out  the  slides  from  the  fluid  so  that  the  upper  part 
is  more  deeply  stained  than  the  lower.  The  slide  is  then  turned 
round  and  the  process  reversed  with  ha>matox}iin.  Afterwards 
absolute  alcohol,  bergamot  oil,  xylol  balsam,  Flemming's  chrom- 
osmium-acetic  acid,  and  safranin  staining  give  good  results.  Fix- 
ation with  3  per  cent  nitric  acid  produced  vacuoles  in  the  yolk,  and 
was,  therefore,  of  but  little  use. 

Dr.  H.  Plenking,*  in  his  investigations  into  the  development  of 
the  Phalangida,  adopted  various  methods  of  preparing  the  ova  ;  the 
animals  were  sometimes  killed  with  boiling  water,  and  left  in  it  for 
some  time  for  the  albumen  to  coagulate  ;  they  were  then  hardened 
in  successive  strengths  of  alcohol  up  to  80  per  cent.  The  ova  were 
never  placed  direct  in  alcohol,  in  consequence  of  the  shrinking 
caused  by  such  a  process.  Other  specimens  were  killed  with  ether, 
the  back  laid  open,  and  the  animals  placed  in  Flemming's  chrom- 
osmic-acetic  acid  or  in  Kleinenberg's  picrosulphuric  acid  for  some 
hours  before  removal  to  alcohol.  Eggs  that  had  been  deposited 
were  treated  with  hot  water,  and  with  Flemming's  fluid,  as  well  as 
with  hot  and  cold  chromic  acid,  picrosulphuric  acid,  etc.  The  best 
staining  reagents  were  found  to  be  Grenacher's  borax-carmine, 
Hamann's  neutral  acetic  acid  carmine,  and  eosin-hfematoxylin. 
Before  embedding,  the  eggs  on  being  taken  from  absolute  alcohol 
were  placed  in  a  mixture  of  bergamot  oil  and  absolute  alcohol,  then 
in  pure  bergamot  oil,  and  then  in  a  warmed  solution  of  parattine  in 
bergamot  oil,  and  finally  in  quite  pure  parafiine.  By  the  aid  of 
Speugel's  microtome  sections  from  ^^  to  y^^  mm.  thick  were  pre- 
pared. 

Dr.  F.  Blochmann  fixes  the  ovaries  of  ants  and  wasps  with  picric 
acid  or  sublimate,  staining  them  on  the  slide  with  picrocarmine  or 
borax-carmine.     For  examining  the  elements  of  the  yolk,  double- 


*Zeitschrift  fur.  wiss.  Zool.,  xlv.  (1887)  pp.  88-90;  Journ.  Roy. 
Micr.  Soc,  August,  1887. 


CUTTING  AND  MOUNTING  EGGS.  321 

staining  with  borax-  or  picro-carmine  and  bleu  de  Lyon  are  advised. 
(Zeits.  f.  wiss.  Zool.,  xliii.,  1886,  537;  Journ.  Roy.  Micr.  Soc, 
Oct.  1887,  841.) 

Herr  J.  Nusbaum  thinks  that  one  method  of  preservation  can 
never  aiford  satisfactory  material  for  study,  as  each  method  gives 
different  results.  He  treated  fresh  eggs  with  Kleinenberg's  or 
Perenyi's  fluid,  or  treated  them  a  few  seconds  with  hot  water  and 
then  with  bichroriate  of  potash.  The  eggs  in  either  case  were 
hardened  in  70  per  cent  and  then  absolute  alcohol ;  then  colored  in 
toto  by  hoematoxylin,  borax-carmine,  or  red  magdala  ;  the  latter  gave 
a  perfect  staining  reagent,  coloring  the  eggs  and  embryos  in  a  few 
hours,  and  very  intensely,  though  sometimes  very  uniformly.* 

Preparing  Embryos  of  Insects.  —  In  a  paper  on  the  embryonic 
development  of  the  Bombycidce,  Dr.  S.  Selvatico  describes  the 
methods  he  has  made  use  of  both  for  the  preparation  of  entire  em- 
bryos and  for  sections.  The  species  employed  were  Bomhyx  mori, 
Attacus  mylitta,  and  Saturnia  'pyri. 

The  eggs  are  tirst  coagulated  by  plunging  them  in  water  at  75°  C. 
With  a  pair  of  fine-pointed  forceps  a  small  piece  is  removed  from  the 
shell,  in  the  case  of  Bombyx,  without  disturbing  the  underlying 
parts.  With  a  little  care  this  is  easily  done,  because  on  the  eggs  be- 
coming cold,  their  contents  are  somewhat  contracted  and  do  not 
touch  the  shell.  In  the  case  of  Attacus  and  Satiu'uia  the  eggs  have 
a  harder  shell  but  are  larger,  and  a  razor  was  employed  by  the 
author. 

They  are  then  hardened  by  leaving  them  for  twelve  hours  in  a 
.002  per  cent  solution  of  chromic  acid,  and  for  twelve  hours  more 
in  a  .005  solution.  Then  with  a  little  care  the  shell  can  be  easily 
removed  by  employing  the  forceps  or  cutting  it  round  with  a  razor. 

The  entire  contents  having  been  removed,  the  egg  is  freed  from 
chromic  acid  by  leaving  it  in  30  per  cent  alcohol  for  a  day,  the 
alcohol  being  renewed  until  it  is  no  longer  colored  yellow. 

For  staining,  the  egg  is  placed  in  picrocarmine  for  twenty-four 
hours  and  washed  in  30  per  cent  alcohol  to  remove  the  picric  acid. 
When  it  has  been  well  washed  it  may  be  kept  in  30  per  cent  alcohol 
until  sections  are  required. 

Previous  to  cutting  sections  the  ^^g  should  be  placed  in  absolute 
alcohol  for  half  an  hour,  and  then  for  a  few  moments  in  essence  of 
bergamot.  Dry  and  embed  in  a  mixture  of  4  parts  of  spermaceti 
and  1  of  cacao  butter,  to  which  is  added,  according  to  the  tempera- 
ture, some  drops  of  castor-oil.     The  knife  should  be  moistened  with 

*  Arch.  Zool.  Exper.,  1887,  134;  Journ.  Roy.  Micr.  Soc,  1887, 
841. 

31 


322  ENTOMOLOGY. 

olive-oil,  and  each  section  washed  with  a  mixture  of  4  parts  of  oil  of 
turpentine  and  1  of  creosote  to  dissolve  the  embedding  substance  sui'- 
roundiug  the  section.     Mount  in  Canada  balsam. 

To  preserve  the  embryo  entire,  the  shell  is  to  be  removed  as  above 
described,  after  coagulation.  The  egg  is  then  placed  in  a  drop  of 
water  on  the  stage,  and  with  a  low  power  the  embryo  is  extracted 
from  the  vitellus.  It  is  cleaned  as  much  as  possible,  so  that  no  por- 
tion of  the  vitellus  adheres  to  it,  and  mounted  in  glycerinated  gela- 
tine, previously  colored  with  methyl-green.  By  this  method  the 
embryo  takes  from  the  gelatine  an  excess  of  color,  and  is  thus 
stained  after  the  preparation  is  made.  If  it  is  colored  tirst  and  then 
placed  in  colorless  gelatine  it  will  always  lose  color  (sometimes  com- 
pletely) if  the  gelatine  is  only  a  little  greater  in  volume  than  the  em- 
bryo.    (Journ.  de  Microgr.,  vi.  (1882)  pp.  220-1.) 

Surface  Study  of  Eggs,  and  Hardening  for  Cutting,  etc. — Mr.  W. 
A.  Locy*  adopts,  for  studying  the  eggs  of  spiders  while  alive,  the 
long-used  method  of  immersion  in  oil,  which  should  be  perfectly 
clear  and  odorless.  The  external  features  can  be  studied  to  better 
advantage  by  mounting  the  eggs  in  alcohol  after  they  have  been 
freed  from  the  chorion  and  stained.  Another  valuable  method  for 
surface  study  consists  in  clearing  the  already  stained  egg  in  clove- 
oil.  The  thickness  of  the  blastoderm  is  most  easily  determined  in 
this  way. 

The  best  method  of  hardening  preparatory  to  sectioning  is  that  of 
heating  the  water  to  about  80"  C,  and  then,  after  cooling  slowly, 
treating  with  the  usual  grades  of  alcohol.  Good  results  are  obtained 
with  Perenyi's  fluid,  which  renders  the  yolk  less  brittle.  Osmic 
acid  does  not  penetrate  the  chorion,  and  chromic  acid  or  acid  alcohol 
are  not  easily  soaked  out  on  account  of  the  thickness  of  the  chorion. 

Borax-carmine  is,  on  the  whole,  the  best  staining  fluid.  It  is 
diflicult  to  make  the  dye  penetrate  the  chorion,  and,  after  hatching, 
the  cuticula  forms  a  similar  obstacle.  This  difliculty  may  be  over- 
come by  prolonged  immersion  in  the  staining  fluid.  In  some  cases 
seventy-two  hours  were  required  to  obtain  a  sufiicient  depth  of  color. 
In  order  to  avoid  maceration,  which  would  result  from  so  long-con- 
tinued immersion  in  a  weak  alcoholic  dye,  the  staining  process  may 
be  interrupted  at  the  end  of  every  twenty-four  hours  by  transferring 
to  70  per  cent  alcohol  for  an  hour  or  more. 

After  most  methods  of  hardening  the  yolk  becomes  very  brittle, 
and  the  sections  crumble.  This  difficulty  may  be  overcome  by  col- 
lodionizing  the  cut  surface  before  making  each  section,  in  the  man- 
ner described  by  Dr.  Mark.f 

*  Amer.  Natural.,  xix.  (1885),  pp.  103-3^.  f  Ibid.,  p.  638. 


MOUNTING  APPENDAGES  OF  INSECTS.         323 

Mounting  Dry  the  Eggs  of  Insects. — According  to  Dimmock,  eggs 
and  other  objects  may  be  mounted  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  easily  ex- 
amined with  the  microscope.  The  eggs  are  mounted  in  rings  of 
cork  between  two  thin  cover-glasses  such  as  are  used  for  microscope- 
slides.  Thus  mounted,  and  sealed  with  black  lac  or  other  means, 
the  specimens  can  be  pinned  in  the  collection  with  safety  and  neat- 
ness. Specimens  can  be  mounted  in  Canada  balsam  in  these  cork 
rings  in  the  way  described  by  Cameron,*  who,  however,  used  paper 
in  place  of  cork;  the  latter,  however,  is  lighter  than  paper,  is  more 
convenient  for  pinning,  and  can  be  easily  cut  into  rings  of  different 
sizes  with  a  cork-borer  such  as  is  used  in  chemical  laboratories.  If 
circular  cover-glasses  are  used,  the  cells  can  be  neatly  sealed  on  a 
turn-table  for  preparing  microscope-slides.     {Psyche,  iv.  133.) 

Preparing  Fire  flies,  etc. — To  investigate  the  seat  of  oxidation 
which  produces  the  light  in  Lucwla  italica.  Dr.  C.  Emery  killed  the 
living  animal  in  a  solution  of  osmic  acid,  which  stains  the  luminous 
plates  of  the  still  living  and  light-developing  animals  brown.  The 
parts  which  are  to  be  further  examined  are  macerated  for  a  long- 
time in  water,  the  development  of  fungi  in  which  is  prevented  by 
the  addition  of  crystals  of  thymol.  The  osmic  acid  is  especiallj^  re- 
duced at  the  bifurcations  of  the  blind-ending  tracheal  capillaries 
within  the  luminous  plates,  and  in  the  tracheal  branches  before  the 
bifurcation.  Another  method  of  preservation  consists  in  injecting 
corrosive  sublimate  solution  into  the  animal,  and  subsequent  treat- 
ment with  alcohol.  (Zeits.  f  lir  wissen.  Zoologie,  xl.  (1884)  338  ;  ab- 
stract in  Journ.  Roy.  Micr.  Soc,  1885,  733.) 

Mounting  the  Appendages  of  Insects  for  Pinning  in  the  Cabinet. — 
A  writer  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  Brooklyn  Entomological  Society  (vi. 
24)  says:  "  The  habit  of  many  has  been  after  examining  the  parts  of 
an  insect  and  making  dissections  to  throw  away  the  insect  after 
making  notes.  Others  mount  them  in  balsam  on  glass  slides:  this 
latter  had  been  my  practice,  but  slides  accumulate  and  are  incon- 
venient to  keep.  A  substitute  a  knowledge  of  which  I  owe  to  Dr. 
Horn  answers  admirably  for  all  purposes  and  is  perfectly  simple. 
A  hole,  round  or  square,  is  punched  or  cut  out  of  a  piece  of  Bristol 
board  of  any  desired  size;  a  cover-glass  (I  use  the  square)  is  fastened 
on  one  side  over  the  aperture  by  a  thin  circle  of  shellac:  this  forms  a 
shallow  cell  in  which  the  part  to  be  examined  is  placed;  a  drop  of 
Canada  balsamf  is  put  on  it,  and  the  whole  is  covered  by  another  cover- 


*  Proc.  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.  Glasgow,  1881-83,  v.  4-7. 

f  The  balsam  will  be  clouded  by  the  moisture  contained  in  the 
appendages  unless  it  has  been  macerated  in  alcohol  and  oil  of 
turpentine,  or  has  undergone  a  long  maceration  in  oil  of  turpentine. 


324  ENTOMOLOGY. 

glass.  Your  preparation  is  thus  effectually  preserved,  and  you  can 
put  a  pin  through  the  end  of  the  card  and  put  it  in  your  cabinet  next 
the  insect  the  object  is  intended  to  illustrate.  You  can  put  half  a 
dozen  cards  on  a  single  pin,  and  the  space  thus  occupied  is  very  small, 
while  the  preparation  is  as  convenient  for  examination  as  though 
mounted  on  a  glass  slide." 

Mounting  the  "Saw"  of  the  Tenthredinidae. — Mr.  P.  Cameron 
describes  his  method  of  mountmg  and  preserving  the  "saw"  of  the 
Tenthredinidae  for  microscopical  examination,  a  method  which  can 
be  applied  to  microscopical  mountmg  generally. 

With  fresh  specimens  the  saws  can  be  extracted  by  pressing  the 
abdomen,  when  they  will  be  protruded  and  readily  extracted.  With 
old  specimens  it  can  be  done  equally  well  by  placing  the  insect  in  a 
relaxing-dish,  or,  more  promptly,  by  steeping  it  in  water  for  a  day, 
when  it  can  be  taken  out  in  the  same  way  as  with  fresh  insects, 
the  only  difficulty  being  experienced  with  insects  full  of  eggs.  For 
their  better  examination  the  four  pieces  composing  the  ovipositor 
proper  should  be  separated;  after  which  they  must  be  steeped  in 
turpentine  for  a  day  or  two  so  as  to  get  rid  of  air.  This  is  best  done 
by  enclosing  them  in  a  small  folded  piece  of  paper;  and,  if  they  be 
properly  labelled,  many  different  preparations  can  be  placed  in  the 
turpentine-bottle  together.  Next  take  a  sheet  of  tine  Bristol  board, 
and  cut  it  up  into  pieces,  say  12  lines  by  9  lines,  and  punch  at  one 
end  a  round  or  square  hole,  four  or  five  lines  across.  On  the  lower 
side  of  this  fasten,  by  means  of  Canada  balsam  dissolved  in  benzine, 
a  cover-glass.  When  this  has  dried  till  up  half  the  cell  thus  formed 
with  the  same  composition,  spreading  it  as  evenly  as  possible,  and  in 
it  arrange  your  preparation.  Put  it  aside  for  some  hours  in  a  place 
where  no  dust  will  fall  on  it,  then  fill  the  cell  with  enough  balsam 
to  run  over  the  edge  of  the  cell,  place  a  cover-glass  over  it,  and  press 
it  down.  All  that  now  requires  to  be  done  is  to  allow  the  prepara- 
tion to  dry,  taking  special  care  to  keep  it  flat,  to  label  it,  and  stick  a 
pin  through  the  card,  by  means  of  which  it  is  fixed  in  the  cabinet 
alongside  the  insect  from  which  the  part  was  taken.  To  examine  it 
under  the  microscope,  all  that  is  necessary  to  do  is  to  place  an 
ordinary  glass  slide  across  the  stage,  and  put  the  card  on  it,  in  doing 
which  it  is  not  necessary  to  take  the  pin  out  of  it  if  a  short  pin  be 
used. 

The  great  advantage  of  this  plan  for  entomological  purposes  is  that 
it  does  not  necessitate  the  formation  of  two  distinct  collections,  which 
must  be  the  case  if  dissections  are  mounted  on  glass  slides,  which  can- 
not of  course  be  placed  alongside  the  insect.  Besides  that,  it  is  cheaper, 
more  expeditious,  and  safer;  for  the  cards  are  so  light  that  no  injury 
comes  to  them  from  falling,  or  getting  loose  in  the  box.     If  desired. 


MOUNTING  THE  ''SAW"  OF  THE  TENTHREDINID^.  S2t) 

a  colored  riug  can  be  put  rouud  the  top  object-glass  by  the  turn-table 
in  the  ordinary  way,  but,  except  for  ornament,  is  not  necessary. 
The  author  usually  prepares  two  or  three  dozen  of  the  cards  with 
one  cover-glass  on  at  a  time,  so  as  to  have  them  ready  for  use.  The 
object  of  letting  the  di^.sections  harden  in  the  cell,  half  tilled  with 
balsam,  is  that  Inree  or  four  separate  parts  may  be  arranged  in  the 
most  suitable  way  in  the  same  cell  without  fear  of  their  being  disar- 
ranged or  injured  when  the  top  cover-glass  is  put  on,  while  both 
might  happen  if  the  whole  operation  was  performed  at  once. 

For  the  examination  of  the  saws,  a  quarter-inch  objective  is  the 
best;  the  teeth,  in  some  cases,  are  so  fine  that  they  are  apt  to  be  over- 
looked if  lower  powers  are  used.  (Trans.  Entomol.  Soc.  Loud.,  1881, 
pp.  576-7.) 


THE  ENTOMOLOGIST'S  LIBRARY. 

When"  we  reflect  that  perhaps  upwards  of  175,000  to 
200,000  species  of  insects  have  been  described,  and  the 
habits  and  histories  of  some  of  them  noted  in  articles  and 
memoirs  scattered  through  numerous  journals,  proceedings, 
and  transactions  of  learned  societies,  we  can  get  some  idea 
of  the  vast  extent  of  entomological  literature.  We  can  only 
draw  attention  to  the  most  indispensable  articles,  memoirs, 
and  complete  works,  without  which  no  one  can  do  good 
general  work  in  entomology.  Those  who  desire  to  confine 
their  attention  to  special  orders  should  look  to  the  lists  of 
publications  already  given  under  such  groups.  The  titles 
of  works  indispensable  to  the  student  are  printed  in 
heavy-faced  type. 

Bibliographical  Works  on  Entomology. 

Agassiz,  L.  Bibliograpbia  Zoologise  et  Geologioe.  Edited  by  H.  E. 
Strickland,     i.-iv.     Ray  Society,  Loudon,  1848-54. 

Nomenclator  Zoologicus.     Soloduri.    1842-47. 

Index  Universalis.  "Soloduri.     4°,  1846;  8°,  1848.  _ 

Carus,  J.  v.,  and  W.  Engelmann.  Bibliotbeca  bistorico-naturalis. 
1846-60.    i.,  ii.     Leipzig,  1861. 

Carus,  J.  v.,  and  P.  Mayer.  Zoologiscber  Jabresbericht  fiir  1879- 
1888. 

Dimmock,  G.  Tbe  entomological  writings  of  Samuel  Hubbard 
Scudder.     Cambridge,  1879. 

Engelman,  W.  Bibliotbeca  bistorico-naturalis.  1760-1846.  i.  Leip- 
zig, 1846. 

Hagen,  H.  A.  Bibliotlieca  entomologica.  [Up  to  1863.]  i.,  ii.  Leipzig, 
1863-63. 

Henshaw,  S.*  Tbe  entomological  writings  of  Alpbeus  Spring 
Packard.     U.  S.  Department  of  Ag.  Div.  Ent.  Bull.  16,  1887. 

Marschall,  A.  D.  Nomenclator  Zoologicus.  Wien,  1873.  (A  contin- 
uation of  Agassiz'  Nomenclator.) 

Packard,  A.  S.  Record  of  American  Entomology  for  1868-73. 
Salem,  Mass. 

*  For  Bibliograpbies  of  Drs.  LeConteand  Horn  see  iinder  Coleoptera. 


THE  ENTOMOLOGISTS  LIBRARY.  327 

Scadder,   S.    H.     Noraeuclator    Zoologicus.      Part  I.    Supplemental 

List  (to  Agassiz);  Part  II.  Universal  Index.     Washington,  1882. 
Catalogue   of  scientific  serials  of  all   countries.      1633-1876. 

Cambridge,  1879. 
Taschenberg,  0.     Bibliotheca  Zoologica.     1861-80.     Leipzig,  1886-89. 

i.-xii. 
Axchiv  fiir  Naturgeschichte.    Contains  annual  reports  on  the  progress 

of  Entomologj  from  1836  to  1888. 
Royal  Society,  London.     Catalogue  of  Scientific  Papers.     8  vols.     4°. 

Loudon,  1868-88. 
Zoological  Record  for  1864-88.     London,  1865-88. 

Entomological  Periodicals. 

American  Entomologist,     i.,  1868;  ii.,  1870;   iii.,  1880.      St.  Louis 

and  New  York. 
American  Naturalist.     Salem,  Boston,  and  Philadelphia,  1867-88. 
Annals  of  the  Lyceum  of  Natural  History  of  New  York.     1824-76. 

Since  1876  continued  as  Annals  of  the  New  York  Academy  of 

Sciences. 
Annales  de  la  Societe  entomologique  Beige.     Brussels,  1857-88. 
Annales  de  la  Societe  entomologique  do  France.     Paris,  1882-88. 
Berliner  Entomolog.  Zeitschrift.     1857-88.     Berlin. 
Deutsche  Entomolog.  Zeitschrift.     1881-88. 
Zeitschrift  fur  wissenschaftliche  Zoologie.     Leipzig.     1848-88. 
Bulletin  of  the  Brooklyn  Entomological  Society,    i.-vi.     1878-84. 
Bulletino  della    Society  entomologica  Italiana.      i.-xx.      1869-88. 

Florence. 
Canadian  Entomologist,     i.-xx.     1868-88.     London,  Canada. 
Entomologica  Americana,     i.-iii.    1885-88.     Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Entomologische  Nachrichten.     i.-xiv.     1875-88.    Berlin. 
The  Entomologist,     i.-xxii.     1840-80.     London. 
Entomologist's  Monthly  Magazine,     i.-xxiv.     1864-88.     London. 
Journal    of    the    Academy    of    Natural    Sciences.      Philadelphia. 

1817-88. 
Proceedings  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences.      Philadelphia 

1841-88. 
Journal  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,     i.-vii.     1834-63 
Memoirs  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,     i.-iv.     1806-88 
Linnaea  entomologica.     Entomologische  Verein.     Berlin,  1846-88. 
Proceedings  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History.     1834-88. 
Proceedings    of   the    Entomological    Society  of   Philadelphia,      i.-vi 

1861-67. 
Transactions  of  the  American  Entomological  Society.    Philadelphia 

i.-xiv.     1867-88. 
Psyche,     i.-v.     1874-88.     Cambridge.  Mass. 
Transactions  of  the  American  Phitosophical  Society.     New  Series 

1818-88.     Also  Proceedings,     i.-xxiv.     1840-88. 
Transactions  of  the  Entomological  Society  of  London.     1834-88, 
Wiener  Entomologische  Monatsschrift.     i.-viii.     1857-64. 
Zeitschrift  d.  Entomologische  Verein.     BerVn,  1857-88. 
Zeitung  d.  Entomologische  V  rein.     Stettin,  1840-88. 


328  ENTOMOLOGY. 


General  Entomology. 

The  works  of  Hertst,   Lieuwcnhoek,  Malphighi,  Meckel,    Merian, 

Ramdohr,  Swammerdam,  Series,  aud  Suckow. 

BufFon.  Suites  a  Biiffou  et  Nouvelles  suites  a  Buffou.  Formautavec 
les  GCuvres  de  eet  auteur  un  Cours  complet  d'Histoire  Naturelle. 
Paris,  Dufart,  1798-1807.  Paris,  Roret,  1834-1864.  8vo.  (In- 
sectes,  Crustaces,  Aracbuides,  etc  ,  par  Amyot,  Audinet-Serville, 
Boisduval,  Gervais,  Guenee,  Lacordaire,  Latreille,  Lepeletier  de  St. 
Fargeau,  Macquart,  Milne-Edwards,  Rambur,  et  Walkenaer. ) 

Burmeister,  H.  Manual  of  Entomology.  Translated  by  V/.  E.  Shuckard. 
Loudon,  8vo.     1836. 

Burmeister,  Hermann.  Zoologischer  Hand  Atlas.  Berlin,  1836-43. 
FoL,  41  plates. 

Glaus,  C.  Elementary  Text-book  of  Zoology.  Translated  and  edited 
by  Sedgwick  and  Heathcote.     Vol.  i.     Loudon,  1884. 

Cuvier,  G.  Le  Regne  animal  distribue  d'apres  son  Organisation. 
Nouvelle  edition,  accompagnee  de  planches  gravees,  representant 
les  types  de  tous  les  Genres,  etc.,  publiee  par  uu  reunion  de  Dis- 
ciples de  G.  Cuvier.  Paris,  1849.  8vo.  (Insectes,  Arachnides, 
Crustaces  par  Audouin,  Blanchard,  Doyere,  Milne  Edwards  et  Duges.) 
4  vols,  te.xte  et  4  vols,  atlas. 

Drury,  Drew.  Illustrations  of  Natural  History,  etc.  London,  1770- 
82.     4to,  3  vols.     (ed.  Westwood,  1837.) 

Fabricius,  Job.  Cbrist.     Systeraa  Entomologiae.     1775. 

Genera  lusectorum.     1777. 

Species  Insectorum.     i.-ii.     1781. 

Mantissa  lusectorum.     i.-ii.     1787. 

Entomologia  Systematica,     i.-iv.     1792-94. 

Geer,  Carl  de.  Memoires  pour  servir  a  I'Histoire  des  Insectes. 
1752-78.     i.-vii.     4to. 

Gerstaecker,  A.  Arthropoden,  in  Peters  and  Cams'  Handbuch  der 
Zoologie.     Leipzig,  1863. 

Godman,  F.  Ducane,  and  Salvin,  0.  Biologia  Centrali-Americana. 
Loudon,  1877-88. 

Graber,  V.     Die  Insekten.     Parts  I.,  II.     Munich,  1877. 

Griffith,  E.  The  Animal  Kingdom,  described  and  arranged  in  con- 
formity with  its  organization.  London,  1824-33.  8vo.  Class 
Insecta.     2  vols.     1832. 

Guerin-Menerille,  F.  E.  Iconographle  du  R^gne  Animal  de  G. 
Cuvier,  ou  representation  d'apres  nature  de  I'une  des  espSces  les 
plus  remarquable  et  souvent  non  encore  figurees  de  chaque  genre 
d'animaux.  Vols.  6  et  7:  Annelides,  Crustaces,  Arachnides,  et 
Insectes.     Paris,  1829-44. 

Kirby,  W.,  and  W.  Spence.  An  Introduction  to  Entomology;  or. 
Elements  of  the  Natural  History  of  Insects.  4  vols.  8vo.  1828. 
Seventh  edition  (comprising  vols.  3  and  4  of  the  early  editions). 
London,  1856.    Post  8vo. 

Kirby,  W.     Fauna  boreali-Americana,  etc.     Norwich,  1837.     4to. 

Latreille,  Pierre  Andre.  Precis  des  caracteres  generique  des  Insectes. 
1796.     8vo. 

— —  Genera  Crustaceorum  et  Insectorum.     4  vols.     8vo.     1806-09. 


THE  ENTOMOLOGIST'' S  LIBRAUT.  329 

latreille,  Pierre  Andre.     Consideration  generales  sur  TOrdre  naturel 

des  Auimaux  coraposant  les  Classes  des  Crustaces,  des  Arachnides 

et  des  Insectes. 

Insects  in  Cuvier's  Regne  animal.     8vo.     1810. 

Families  naturelles  du  Regne  animal.     8vo.     1825. 

Cours  d'Entomok^ie.     8vo.     1831. 

Linnaeus,  Carolus.     Systema  Naturae.     1735.     12th  edition.    1766-68. 
MacLeay,  W.  S.     Horaj  Eutomologicse.     i.,  ii.     London,  1819, 
Yiall,  L.  C,  and  A.  Denny.     Tlie  Structure  and  Life-history  of  the 

Cockroach.     Loudon,  1886. 
Newport,  G.    Article  Insecta.     (Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiol- 
ogy.    London,  1839.) 
Packard,  A.  S.     Guide  to  Study  of  Insects.     9th  edition.     New  York, 

1888. 
Palisot  de  Beauvais,  A.  J.     Insectes  recueillis  en  Afrique  et  en  Ame- 

rique,  dans  les  royaumes  d'Oware  et  de  Benin,  a  Saint-Dominique 

et  dans  les  Etats-Unis,  pendant  les  anuees  1786-97.     Fol,  with  90 

plates.     Paris,  1805-21. 
Beaumur,  Bene  Ant.  de.     Memoires  pour  servir  a  I'Histoire  des  Insectes. 

Paris,  1734-42.     i.-vii.     4to. 
Boesel,  Aug.  Joh.     Der  monatlich  herausgegeben  Insekten-Belustigung. 

Niirnberg,  1746-61.     i.-iv.     4ti>.     Illustrated. 
Savigny,  G.  C.  de.      Description   de    I'Egypte,   Histoire    naturelle. 

Crustaces,  Arachnides,  Myriapodes  et  Insectes.     53  pi.  in  gr.  fol. 

Paris,  1809-38.     Explication  sommaire  des  planches,  par  J.  V. 

Audouin.     Paris,  1826.     Fol. 
Saussure,  H.  de.     Spicilegia  Eutomologica  Genavensia.     I.  Genre 

Hemimerus.     Geneve,  1879. 
Say,  T.     American  Entomology,     i.-iii.     Philadelphia,  1824-25-28. 
Complete  Writings  on  the  Entomology  of  North  America,  edited  by 

J.  L.  LeConte,  M.I).     2  vols.     8vo.     Colored  plates.     New  York, 

1859. 
Westwood,   J.    0.      An  Introduction  to  the  Modern   Classification  of 

Insects.     2  vols.     8vo.     London,  1839-40. 

External  Anatomy  and  Morphology. 

Audouin,  J.  V.     Becherches  anatomiques  sur  le  Thorax  des  Animaux 

articules  et  celui  des  Insectes  hexapodes  en  particulier.     (Annales  d. 

Sc.  Nat.  i.,  1824,  p.  97  and  416.) 
Huxley,  T.  H.     The  anatomy  of  the  invertebrated  animals.     1877. 
Leuckart,  B.     Ueber  die  Morphologic  und  die  Verwandtschaftsver- 

hiiltnisse  der  wirbellosen  Thiere.     Braunschweig,  1848.     8vo. 
Savigny,  J.  C.   Memoires  sur  les  Animaux  sans  Vertebres.   I.  Partie. 

Description  et  Classification  des  Animaux  invertebres  et  articules. 

1.  Fascicule.     Theorie  des  Organes  de  la  Bouche  des  Crustaces  et 

des  Insectes.     Paris,  1816. 

Internal  Anatomy  and  Histology. 

Dufour,  L.  Reclierches  anatomiques  et  physiologiques  sur  les  Hemip 
teres  (1833);  les  Orthopteres,  les  Hymenopteres,  et  les  Neuropteres 
(1841);  et  les  Dipteres  (1851).  (Mem.  de  I'lnstitut,  iv.  vii.  xi.  Also 
numerous  memoirs  in  Ann.  des  Sci.  Nat.) 


330  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Leydig,  F.     Traite  d'Histolngie.     Paris,  1866. 

Lyonet,  P.     Traite  anatomique  de  la  Chenille,  etc.     La  Haye,  1762. 

Anatomic  de  differcute.s  cspeccs  d'iusectes.     (Mem.  du  Museum, 

xviii.-xx.     Paris,  1829-32.) 

Minot,  C.  S.  Histology  of  the  locust.  Second  Rep.  U.  S.  Ent.  Com- 
mission.    1880. 

Siebold,  C.  Th.  von.     Anatomy  of  the  luvcrtebrata.     Boston,  1854. 

Strauss  Durckheim,  H.  Considerations  generales  sur  I'Anatomie  com- 
paree  des  Animaux  articules,  auxquelles  on  a  joint  I'Anatomie  descrip- 
tive du  Melolontha  vulgaris.     Paris,  1828.     4to,  10  pi. 

Viallanes,  M.  H.  Recherches  sur  rhistologie  des  insectes.  Paris, 
1882. 

a.    The  Nervous  System. 

Blanchard,  E.  Recherches  anatomiques  et  zoologiques  sur  le  SystSme 
nerveux  des  Animaux  sans  vertebres.  Du  systeme  nerveux  des 
Insectes.     (Aunal.  d.  scieuc.  natur.,  3.  ser.  v.,  1846,  p.  273-379.) 

Du  Systeme  nerveux  chez  les  Invertebres  dans  ses  rapports  avec 

la  Classification  de  ces  Animaux.     Paris,  1849.     8vo. 

Flogel,  J.  H.  L.  Bau  des  Gehirns  der  verschiedenen  Insektenordnungen. 
(Zeits.  f.  Wisseu.  Zool.,  xxx.     Supp.  1878.) 

Leydig,  F.     Vom  Bau  des  thierischen  Korpers.     1864. 

Tafeln  zur  vergl.  Anatomie.     1864. 

■ Untersuchungen  zur  Anat.  uud  Histologic  der  Thiere.     1883. 

Also  numerous  works  and  articles  in  Miiller's  Archiv.,  Zeits.  fiir 
wissen.  Zoologie,  Nova  Acta,  etc. 

Lienard,  V.  Recherches  sur  le  Systeme  Nerveux  des  Arthropodes. 
Bruxelles,  1880. 

Michels,  H.  Nervensystem  von  Oryctes  nasicornis  im  Larven-,  Puppen- 
uad  Kaferzustande.     (Zeits.  f.  Wi.ssen.  Zool.,  xxxiv.,  1881.) 

Newport,  G.  On  the  nervous  system  of  the  Sphinx  ligustri  Linn., 
and  on  the  changes  which  it  undergoes  during  a  part  of  the  meta- 
morphoses of  the  insect.  (Philosoph.  Transact.,  1832,  p.  383-398, 
and  1834,  p   389-423.) 

On  the  structure,  relations,  and  development  of  the  nervous 

and  circulatory  systems,  and  on  the  existence  of  a  complete  circu- 
lation of  the  blood  in  vessels,  in  MjTiapoda  and  Macrourous 
Arachnida.     (Philosoph.  Transact.,  1843,  p.  243-302.) 

Newton,  E.  T.  On  the  brain  of  the  cockroach.  (Quart.  Journ.  Micr. 
Sci.,  1879.) 

Viallanes,  H.  Le  cerveau  de  la  guepe.  (Vespa.  Ann.  Sc.  Nat.  Zool., 
1887.) 

Le  cerveau  du  criquet.      (CEdipoda  and  Caloptenus.     Ann.  Sc. 

Nat.  Zool.,  1887.) 

b.    Organs  of  Special  Sense  and  their  Physiology. 

Carriere,  J.     Die  Sehorgan  der  Thiere.     Mlinchen  u.  Leipzig,  1885. 
Exner,  S.     Ueber  das  Sehen  von  Bewegungen  und  die  Theorie  des 

zusammeugesetzten  Auges.     Wien,  1875. 
Die  Frage  von  der  Fuuctionsweise  des  Facettenauges.     (Biol. 

Centralb.,  i.,  1881-2.) 


THK  ENTOMOLOOIsrs  LIDIiART.  331 

Graber,  V.     Die  tympanalen  Sinnesapparate  der  Orthopteren.     Deuks. 

Akad.  Wicii,  x.wvi.,  ly?."). 
Grenacher,  H.     TJntersuchungen  ueber  das  Sehorgan  der  Arthropoden. 

Gottiugon,  1879. 
Hause,  G.     Physiologische  und  histiologische  Untersuchungen  ueber  das 

Geruchsorgan  der  Insekten.     (Zeits.  f.  wisseu.  Zoologie,  xxxiv.,  361, 

1880.     Abstract  in  Amer.  Nat.,  xxi.,  379,  1887.) 
Kraepelin,  K.     Ueber  die  Geruchsorgane  der  Gliederthiere.     Hamburc;, 

1883.  (Abstract  iu  Ainer.  Nat  ,  xx.,  889,  973,  1880;  xxi.,  182,  1887^) 
Krancher,  0.     Der  Ban  der   Stigmen   bei  deu  lusekteu.     (Zeits.   f. 

\vis.sen.  Zoologie,  xxxv.,  505,  r88l.) 
Landois,  H.     Die  Ton-  und  Stimmapparate  der  Insecteu.     Leipzig, 

1867. 
Leydig,  F.     Ueber  Geruchs-  uud  Gehororgane  der  Krebse  und  In- 

secten.     (Reicliert  u.  du  Bois-Keymond's  Arch.,  1860.) 
Patten,  W.     Eyes  of  Molluscs  and  Arthropods.     Naples.     (Abstract  iu 

Jouru.  Morpb.  p.  67,  vol.  i..  No.  1.)     Bo.ston,  1887. 
Plateau,  F.     Eecherckes  experimentales  sur  la  vision  chez  les  Insectes. 

(Bull,  de  I'Acad.  Roy.  Sc.  de  Belgique,  1885.) 
Will,  F.      Das    Geschmacksorgan    der    Insekten.      (Zeits.    f.   wLsseu. 

Zoologie,  1885.) 

Also  the  writings  of  Bonsdorf,  Burmeister,  Erichson,  Forel,  Gazag- 
naire,  Graber,  Hicks,  Huber,  Kiinckel,  Lehrman,  Leydig,  Lubbock,  New- 
port, Perris,  Pierret,  Plateau,  Siebold,  Voges,  and  Wolff. 

c.    Organs  of  Circulation  and  Respiration. 

Chun,  C.     Rectal  Drusen  bei  den  Insekten.     (Abb.  d.  Seukenberg. 

Naturf.  Ges.,  x.,  1876.) 
Graber,   V.     Ueber  den   propulsatorischen   Apparat    der  Insekten. 

(Arch.  f.  3Iikr.  Anat.,  ix.,  1873.     Heart  and  Pericardium.) 
Langendorff.     Studien  ueber  die  Innervation  der  Atbembevi^egungen. 

— Das  Atbmungscentrum  der  Insekten.     (Arcb.  f.  Anat.  u.  Pbys., 

1883.) 
Lubbock,  J.     Distribution  of  tracheae  in  insects.     (Trans.  Linn.  Soc  , 

xxiii.,  1860.) 
MacLeod,  J.     La  structure  des  tracbees,  et  la  circulation  peritracbe- 

enne.     Bru.xelles,  1880. 
Packard,  A  S.     On  tbe  nature  and  crigin  of  the  so-called  "  spiral 

thread  "  of  tracheoe.     (Amer.  Nat.,  x.\.,  438,  1886.) 
Palmen,  J.  A.     Zur  Morphologic  des  Tracheensystem.     Leipzig,  1877. 
Plateau,  F.    Recherches  experimentales  sur  les  mouvements  respiratoires 

des  Insectes.     (Mem.  de  I'Acad.  Roy.  de  Belgique,  xlv.,  1884.) 
Rathke,  M.  H.     TJntersuchungen    liber   den   Athmungsprozess   der  In- 
sekten.    (Scbrift.  d.  Pbys.  Oek.  Ges.  Konigsberg,  i.,  1861.) 
Verloren,  M.  C.    Memoire  sur  la  circulation  dans  les  insectes.    (Acad. 

Roy.  de  Belgique,  xix.,  1847.) 

d.    Organs  of  Digestion. 

De  Bellesme,  Jousset.     Recherches  experimentales  sur  la  Digestion 
des  Insectes.     Paris,  1875. 


332  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Plateau,  F.  Recherches  sur  les  phenomenes  de  la  digestion  chez  les  in- 
r;ectea.     Bruxelles,  1874. 

e.    Organs  of  Locomotion  and  their  Physiology. 

Carlet,  G.    Sur  la  locomotion  des  insectes  et  des  Arachnides.    Compt. 

Reudu.s.,  Ixxxix.,  1879. 
Dahl,  F.     Beitriige  zur  Keuntniss  des  Baues  und  der  Funktionen  der 

Insektenbeine.     Berlin,  1884. 
Dewitz,  H.     Ueber  die  Fortbewegung  der  Thiere  an  senkrechten 

ijlatten  Fliichen  vermittels  eines  Secretes.     (Zool.  Auzeiger,  1884, 

400;  1885,  157.) 
Lendenfeld,  R.  von.     Der  Flug  der  Libellen.     (Akad.  d.  Wissensch., 

Ixxxiii.,  1881.) 
Marey,  E.   J.     Animal   Mechanism.     New  York,  1879.     (Flight  of 

Insects.) 
Plateau,  F.     Articles  on  the  relative  and  absolute  muscular  force, 

in  Bull.  Acad.  Roy.  de  Belgique,  1865-84. 

/.  Organs  of  Reproduction,  Ovipositor,  etc. 

Brandt,  A.     Ueber  das  Ei  u.  seine  Bildungsstatte.     Leipzig,  1878. 

lewitz,  H.  Bau  u.  Eutwicklung  d.  Stachels,  etc.  (Zeit.  f.  Wissen. 
Zool.,  XXV.,  1875;  xxviii.,  1877.) 

Kraepelin,  K.  Untersuchungen  ueber  d.  Bau,  Mechanismus  u.  d. 
Entwicklung  des  Stachels  d.  bienartigen  Thiere.  Zeits.  f.  Wissen. 
Zool.,  xxiii.ri873.) 

Lacaze-Duthiers,  H.  Recherches  sur  I'armure  genitale  femelle  des  In- 
sectes.    Plates.     8vo.     Paris,  1853. 

Packard,  A.  S.  On  the  structure  of  the  ovipositor  and  homologous 
parts  in  the  male  insect.     (Proc.  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  xi.,  1868.) 

Palmen,  J.  A  Ueber  paarige  Ausflihruugsgange  der  Geschlechts- 
organe  bei  Insekten.     Helsingfors,  1884. 

Embryology  of  Insects. 

Ayers,  H.     On  the  development  of  CEcanthus  niveas  and  its  parasite 

Teleas.     (Mem.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  1884.) 
Balfour,  F.  M.     A  treatise  on  comparative  embryology,    i.,  ii.    London, 

1880-81. 
Brandt,  A.     Beitrage  zur  Entwickelungsgeschichte  der  Libelluliden  und 

Hemipteren,  etc.     St.  Petersburg,  1868. 
Hatschek,  B.     Beitrage  zur  Entwickelungsgeschichte  der  Lepidopterea 

Jena,  1877. 
Kowalevsky,   A       Embryologische    Studien   an  Wtirmen   und   Arthro- 

poden.     St.  Petersburg,  1871. 
Patten,  W.     The  development  of  Phryganids.     (Quart.  Journ.  Micr. 

Sci.,  xxiv.,  1884.) 
Weismann,  A.     Ueber  die  Entstehung   des  voUendeten  Insekts  in 

Larve  und  Puppe.     Ein  Beitrag  zur  Metamorphose  der  Insekten, 

Frankfurt  a.  Main,  1863.     4to. 


THE  ENTOMOLOGIST'S  LIBRARY.  333 

Weismann,  A.     Die  Entwickelung  der  Dipteren  im  Ei,  nach  Beobach- 

tungen  an   Chironomus,  Musca  vomitoria  und  Fulex  canis.      (Zeit- 

scbrift  fur  wisseus.  Zoologio,  xiii.,  p.  107-204.) 
Die  uachembryonale  Entwickelung  der  Musciden  nacli  Beo- 

bachtuugen  an  Musca  vomitoria  und  Sarcopbaga  carnaria.     (Tbe 

same,  xiv.,  p.  187-336.) 
Zaddach,  G.     Untersucbung  liber  die  Entwickelung  und  den  Bau  der 

Gliedertbiere.     Heft  1.  Die  Entwickelung  des  Pbryganidcn-Eies. 

Berlin,  1854. 

Also  memoirs  by  Bobretzky,  Brandt,  Bruce,  Butschli,  Claus,  Dewitz, 
Ganin,  Grimm,  Hertwig,  Korotneff,  Leuckart,  Ludwig,  Metschnikoff, 
Melnikow,  Nusbaum,  Packard.  Patten,  TichomirofF,  Wagner,  Zacharias, 
Graber,  Heider,  Van  Eees,  Wheeler,  Witlaczil,  Viallanes,  Voeltzkow. 

Phylogeny  or  Origin  of  Insects. 

Brauer,  F.    Betracbtuugen  ueber  die  Verwandlung  der  Inseckten  im 

Sinne  der  Descendenz-theorie.  (Verb.  Zool.  bot.  Ges.  Wien.,  1869.) 
Lubbock,  J.     On  tbe  origin  and  metamorpboses  of  Insects.    London, 

1874.     (Also  Journ.  Linn.  Soc.  London,  xi.,  422,  1873.) 
Mayer,  P.     Ueber  Ontogenie  und  Pbylogenie  der  Insekten.     (Jena. 

Zeits.  f.  Nat.,  x.,  1876.) 
Packard,  A.  S.     Hints  on  tbe  ancestry  of  insects.     (Cbapter  xiii.  of 

"  Our  Common  Insects.")     Boston,  1873. 

Review  of  Mayer's  article.     (Amer.  Nat.,  x.,  688,  1876.) 

Genealogy  of  tbe  Hexapoda.     (3d  Rep.  U.  S.  Entomological 

Commission,  295-304,  1883.) 

Insects  and  the  Fertilization  of  Plants. 

Darwin,   C.     On    the   various  contrivances  by  wbicb  British  and 

foreign  Orchids  are  fertilized  by  Insects.     1862. 

Animals  and  plants  under  domestication,    i.,  ii.    1868. 

Different  forms  of  flowers.     1880. 

Lubbock,  J.     British  wild  flo\Ters  in   relation  to   insects.     London, 

1875. 
Miiller,  H.      Alpenblumen,   ihre  Befruchtung  durch  Insekten  und 

ibre  Anpassuugen  an  dieselben.     Leipzig,  1881. 
Fertilization  of  Flowers.     English  Translation.     London. 

Geographical  Distribution. 

LeConte,  J.  L.  The  Coleoptera  of  Kansas  and  eastern  New  Mexico. 
(With  colored  map  in  illustration  of  the  entomological  provinces 
of  North  America.     Smithsonian  Contributions,  1859.) 

Packard,  A.  S.  On  tbe  Geographical  Distribution  of  the  Moths  of 
Colorado.     (Rt.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  for  1873.)     1874. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  tbe  Phalsenidae  of  the  U.  S. 

(pp.  567-594  of  Monogr.  of  Geometrid  Moths,  1876.) 

Some  characteristics  of  tbe  central  zoo-geographical  province  of 

the  U.  S.  (Amer.  Nat.,  1878.)  Also  see  zoo-geographical  map  of 
N.  A.  in  3d  Rep.  U.  S.  Entomological  Commission,  1883. 


334  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Scudder,  S.  H.     Distribution  of  insects  in  New  Hampshire.     1874. 

(Also  see  Butterflies  of  New  England.     1888.) 
Speyer,  Ad.  and  Aug.    Die  geographische  Verbreitung  der  Schmetter- 

liuge  Deutscblauds  uud  der  Schvveiz.     Leipzig,  18r)8. 
Wallace,  A.   R.      The  Geographical  Distribution  of  Animals,      i.,  ii. 

London,  1876. 
Island  Life.     London,  1880. 

Fossil  Insects. 

Brauer,  F.     Ansicbten  ueber  die  palseozoiscben  Insekten  und  deren 

Deutuug.     Vienna,  1886. 
Brongniart,  C.    Les  Insectes  fossiles  des  Terrains  primaires.    Rouen, 

1885.     5  plates. 
The  fossil  insects  of  the  primary  group  of  rocks.     Translated 

by  M.  Stirrup.     Salford,  1885.     (No  plates.) 
Dohrn,  A.     Eugereon.      Mayer's  Paloeontograph.     xiii.,  1866;  xvi., 

1869. 
Scudder,  S.  H.     Systematische  Uebersicht  der  fossilen  Myriopoden, 

Araclmoideu   und   Insekten.     (Zittel's  Handbuch  der  Palfeonto- 

logie.)     Mtinchen  u.  Leipzig,  1885. 
Systematic  Review  of  our  Present  Knowledge  of  Fossil  Insects,  etc. 

Washington,  1886. 

Also  papers  by  Scudder  in  Bull.  Hayden's  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey, 
1868-83,  Mem.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.  1866-85;  A.  Dohrn,  Germar, 
Hagen,  Heer,  von  Heyden,  Oustalet,  etc. 

Economic  Entomology. 

Boisduval,  J.  A.     Essai  sur  I'Entomologie  horticole.     Paris,  1867. 
Comstock,  J.  H.     Report  of  the  Entomologist,  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag.,  foi 

1879  and  1880.    Washington. 

Report  upon  Cotton  Insects.     Washington,  1879. 

Curtis,  John.     Farm  Insects;  being  the  Natural  History  and  Economy 

of  the  Insects  injurious  to  the  Field  Crops  of  Great  Britain  and 

Ireland.     1860. 
Glover,  T.     Reportof  the  U.  S.  Entomologist,  1863-77.     Wa.shington. 

Manuscript  notes  from  my  journal.  Diptera.     1874. 

"  "  "  "         Hemiptera.     1876. 

"  "  "  "         Entomological  Index.  1877. 

"  "  "  "         Cotton.     1878. 

Fitch,  A.  Reports  1-14  on  the  noxious,  beneficial,  and  other  in- 
sects of  New  York.     1856-70. 

Forbes,  S.  A.  Reports  and  bulletins  as  Director  of  Illinois  Lab.  Nat. 
Hist.,  and  afterwards  as  State  Entomologist  of  Illinois.     1876-88. 

Harris,  T.  W.  Treatise  on  the  insects  of  Massachusetts  injurious  to 
Vegetation.     Boston,  1882. 

Hubbard,  H.  G.    Insects  affecting  the  Orange.     U.  S.  Dept.  Ag.     1885. 

Judeich  u.  Nitzsche.  Lehrbuch  der  mitteleuropiiischen  Forstinsek- 
teukunde.     Wien,  1885. 

Le  Baron,  W.   Reports  1-4  on  the  noxious  insects  of  Illinois.  1871-4. 


THE  ENTOMOLOGIST'S  LIBRARY.  335 

Lintner,  J,  A.  First  anuual  report  ou  the  iujurious  aud  otl'er  in- 
sects of  New  York,  1882;  second  report,  1885.  Also  numerous 
other  pamphlets,  bulletins,  and  newspaper  articles. 

Packard,  A.  S.  Reports  1-3  as  entomologist  to  Board  of  Ag.,  Mass. 
1871-3. 

Report  on  the  Rocky  Mountain  locust,   etc.     (9th  ann.    rep. 

U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  for  1875.)    1877. 

Reports  1-3  U.  S.  Ent.  Commission.     Joint  author.     1877-83. 

Bulletin  4  (on  Hessian  tly)  aud  7  (on  Forest-  and  Shade-tree 

insects)  of  U.  S.  Ent.  Comm.     1880-81. 

■■ Report  (5  of  U.  S.  Ent.  Comm.)  on  forest-  and  shade-tree  in- 
sects.    Washington,  1888. 

Ratzeburg,  J.  S.  C.     Die  Forstinsekten.     i.-iii.     Berlin,  1837-45. 

Die  Waldverderber  uud  ihre  Feiude,   1841.     6th  edit.,   1869. 

Berlin.     8\ 

Die  Waldverderbniss  oder  dauernder  Schade,   welcher  durch   In- 

sektenfrass,  etc.,  an  lebenden  Waldbaumen  entsteht.     i.-ii.     1866-68. 
Berlin.     Mau}^  colored  plates.     4". 

Riley,  C.  V.  Reports  1-9  on  tbe  noxious,  beneficial,  and  other  insects  of 
Missouri,     1869-77. 

Reports  1-3  U.  S.  Eut.  Commission.     Joint  author.     1877-83. 

Fourth    Report   of  U.   S.  Ent.  Commission  on   the    Cotton-worm. 

1884. 

Report  of  the  TJ.  S.  Entomologist  for  1879-88.     Also  numerous 

other  works  and  articles. 

Saunders,  W.     Insects  injurious  to  Fruits.     Philadelphia,  1883. 

Thomas,  C.    Reports  1-3  U.  S.  Ent.  C^omm.     Joint  author.    1877-83. 

Bulletin  5  U.  S.  Ent.  Commission  on  the  Chinch-bug.     1879. 

Reports  1-5  on  the  noxious  and  beneficial  insects  of  Illinois. 

1877-81. 

With  worksor  papers  by  Ashmead,  Barnard,  Bethune,  Cook,  Fletcher, 

Forbes,  French,  Garman,  Hagen,  Harrington,  Hind,  Howard,  Kellicott, 

Osborn,  Peck,  Rathvon,  Reed,  Saunders,  Treat,  Trimble,  Walsh,  Weed, 

aud  others. 


GLOSSARY. 


A.B-DO  MEN  (Lat.  abdo,  to  hide, 
to  conceal).  The  third  or 
hindermost  division  of  the 
body;  the  hind  body. 

Ab-er'rant.  Departing  from 
the  regular  or  normal  type. 

A-BORTED.  Obsolete  or  atro- 
phied. 

Ac-A-LYPTRA-TA.  Those  flies 
(Muscidse)  in  which  the  tegulse 
are  absent  or  rudimentary. 

A-CUMI-NATE.  Ending  in  a  pro- 
longed point. 

Aga-mo-gene-sis  (Gr.  a,  with- 
out; game,  marriage;  genes-is, 
birth).  Reproduction  without 
fertilization  by  the  male. 

Al'u-la.  The  membranous  flap 
on  the  base  of  the  wing  itself 
of  flies. 

Am-e-tab'o-lic  (Gr.  a,  without; 
metabole,  change).  Referring 
to  insects  and  other  animals 
which  do  not  luidergo  a  meta- 
morphosis. 

Anal  angle.  The  hinder  and 
inner  corner  of  a  wing. 

A-NAL'o-GY(Gr.  analogia,  propor- 
tion). The  relation  between 
organs  which  differ  in  struc- 
ture, but  have  a  similar  func- 
tion; as  the  wings  of  insects 
and  birds. 


A-NAS-TO-Mo'siNG.  Inosculating 
or  running  into  each  other  like 
veins. 

An-dro-coni-a  (Gr.  aner,  gen. 
andi'os,  man :  konis,  dust). 
Small  scales  of  various  shapes 
peculiar  to  many  male  butter- 
flies. 

An'nu-late.  When  a  leg  or 
antenna  is  surrounded  by  nar- 
row rings  of  a  different  color. 

An-te  cu'bi-tal.  Pertaining  to 
the  space  between  the  base  of 
the  wing  and  the  nodus,  in 
dragon-flies. 

An-te-hu'me-ral.  Relating  to 
the  space  immediately  before 
the  origin  of  the  wings. 

An-tig'e-ny.  Opposition  or  an- 
tagonism of  the  sexes,  embrac- 
ing all  forms  of  secondary 
sexual  diversity. 

Ap'i  cal.  Relating  to  the  apex 
or  top;  in  an  insect's  wing, 
relating  to  the  point  farthest 
from  the  insertion. 

Apical  sector.  One  of  the 
longitudinal  veins  of  the  apex 
of  the  wings,  in  dragon-Hies. 

Ap  o-deme.  An  inwardly 
directed  process  to  which  a 
muscle  is  attached. 

Ap'o-dous.     Footless. 


338 


GLOSSARY. 


Ap-pen-dic'u-late.  Where  the 
joints  of  the  antennae  have 
articulated  appendages. 

Ap'te-rous  (Gr.  a,  without;  pte- 
ro/i,  wing).    Destitute  of  wings. 

A-RACH'Ni-DA(Gr.  arachne,  a  spi- 
der). The  class  of  Arthropods, 
embracing  the  spiders,  scor- 
pions, and  mites. 

A-REo-LA  or  A-REo-LET.  One 
of  the  little  spaces  into  which 
the  wing  is  divided  by  the 
veins  or  venules. 

A-re'o-late.  Furnished  with 
small  areas;  like  a  network. 

A-RisTA.  In  Diptera  a  slender 
bristle  situated  upon  the  upper 
border  of  the  third  joint,  mi- 
croscopically jointed  near  its 
base.    (AVilliston.) 

A-RiSTATE.  Furnished  with  a 
hair,  or  arista. 

A-ROLi-A.  A  plantula  or  climb- 
ing cushion;  one  of  the  lobes 
of  the  pulvillus. 

Ar'thro-mere.  (Gr.  artJiron,  a 
joint;  meros,  a  part  or  segment). 
A  segment  or  ring  of  the  body 
of  an  Arthropod;  somite. 

Ar-throp'o -DA  (Gr.  arihron, 
joint;  pans,  podos,  foot).  That 
branch  or  sub-kingdom  em- 
bracing the  Crustacea,  Podo- 
stomata(Merostomataand  Trilo- 
bita),  Arachnida,  Myriopoda, 
and  Insecta. 

A-SEx'u-AL.  Applied  to  animals, 
especially  insects,  in  which  the 
ovaries  or  reproductive  organs 
are  imperfectly  developed;  and 
which  produce  eggs  or  young 
by  budding. 


At'ro-phied.  Wasted  away, 
wanting,  obsolete,  aborted. 

Au-RELi-A.  Old  term  for  the 
pupa  of  an  insect. 

BiE-NOP'o-DA.  The  thoracic  legs 
of  insects. 

B.a!;'No-soME.  The  thorax  of  in- 
sects. 

Bi'fid.  Divided  into  two  parts; 
forked. 

Blas'to-derm  (blastos,  a  bud  or 
sprout;  derma,  skin).  The 
outer  layer  of  the  germ-cells  of 
the  embryo. 

Bra-chtc'e  RA  (Gr.  bracJius, 
short;  keras,  horn).  Applica- 
ble to  those  Diptera  ortliorhn- 
'plia,  having  short,  3-jointed 
antennae. 

Bran'chi-a.  a  gill  or  respira- 
tory organ  of  aquatic  animals. 

Bran'chi-al.  Relating  to  the 
gills  or  branchiae. 

Buc'CAL.  Relating  to  the  mouth- 
cavity;  or  rarely  to  the  cheeks. 

Bul'late.     Blistered. 

Bur'sa.  a  wing-pouch  in  the 
hind  wings  of  males  of  cer- 
tain caddis-tlies,  and  in  connec- 
tion with  a  stalked  pencil  of 
hairs. 

Cal'ca-ra-ted.  Armed  with 
spurs. 

Cal-los'i  TY.  A  thickened  spot; 
a  small  knob. 

Ca-lyptra-ta  (Gr.  kaluptra,  a 
covering).  Those  flies  (Mus- 
cidoe)  which  have  tegulae  or 
membranous  scales  above  the 
halteres. 

Can-a-lic'u-late.  Channelled; 
excavated  longitudinally. 


GLOSSABT. 


339 


Can'cel-late.  Crossed  by  lines 
going  at  right  angles  to  each 
other;  latticed. 

Can'thus.  The  chitinous  pro- 
jection dividing  the  double 
eyes  of  certain  beetles  (Ateu- 
chus,  Geotrupes,  Gyrinus). 

Cap'i-tate.     Ending  in  a  knob. 

CA-pfr  c-LUM.  The  knob  of 
club-shaped  antennae. 

CAR'Do(Lat.  cardo,  a  hinge).  The 
basal  joint  of  the  maxilla,  sup- 
porting the  stipes. 

Ca-ri'na.  An  elevated  keel- 
like sharp  ridge. 

Car'pus.  The  pterostigma  of 
dragon-flies. 

Car'un-cle  (Lat.  cnruncula,  dim. 
of  mro,  flesh).  A  naked,  soft, 
fleshy  excrescence  or  protuber- 
ance. 

Cal-ca'ri-um  (Lat.  ealcar,  a 
spur).  One  of  the  spines  on 
an  insect's  foot. 

Cellule.  A  little  area  on  the 
wing  surroimded  by  veins. 

Ce-phal'ic.  Relating  to  the 
cephalum  or  head. 

Ce-phal  o-mere.  a  cephalic 
segment  of  an  Arthropod. 

Ce-ph  ALo-soME.  The  head  of  in- 
sects, Arachnidaand  Myriopoda. 

Cer-cop'o-da  (Gr.  cercos,  tail; 
pons,  podos,  foot).  The  last 
pair  of  jointed  abdominal  ap- 
pendages of  insects;  the  "cerci. " 

Cheek.  The  space,  in  Diptera, 
between  the  lower  border  of 
the  eye  and  the  oral  margin, 
merging  into  the  face  in  front, 
and  limited  by  the  occipital 
margin  behind.     (Williston.) 


Chela.  The  terminal  portion 
of  a  limb  with  a  movable 
lateral  part,  like  the  claw  of 
a  crab;  as  in  the  chelate  maxilla 
of  the  scorpion. 

Chi'tin  (Gr.  chiton,  a  tunic). 
The  substance  which  forms 
less  than  one  half  by  weight 
of  the  integument  of  insects, 
and  differing  from  horn  in  be- 
ing insoluble  in  boiling  liquor 
potassae. 

Chit'i-nous.  Composed  of  chi- 
tin;  chitinous  color  is  amber- 
yellow. 

Cho'ri-on.    The  shell  of  the  egg. 

Chrys'a-lis.  The  pupa  of  Le- 
pidoptera. 

Chyi.e  (Gr.  chulos,  juice).  The 
milky  fluid  resulting  from  the 
action  of  the  digestive  fluids  on 
the  food  or  chyme. 

Chyme  (Gr.  chumos,  juice).  The 
acid,  partly  fluid  or  partly 
digested  food,  produced  by  the 
action  of  the  gastric  juice  on 
the  food. 

CiLi-ATE.     Fringed. 

CiLi-UM  (pi.  cilia).  Microscopic 
filaments  attached  to  cells, 
usually  within  the  body,  and 
moving  usually  rhythmically. 

Ci-NERE-ous.  Ash  color;  color 
of  wood-ashes. 

Cing'u-la.    a  colored  band. 

Cla'vate.     Club-shaped. 

Clav'o-la.  The  terminal  divi- 
sion of  the  antenna;  the  same 
as  jlagellum. 

Co-arctate.  Contracted;  ap- 
plicable to  the  pupa-case  cr 
pupariuni  of  Diptera. 


340 


GLOSSARY. 


Cce'cal.  Ending  blindly  or  in  a 
cui-de-sac. 

Cce'cum.  a  blind  sac;  usually 
applied  to  one  or  more  append- 
ages of  the  digestive  canal. 

Col'lo-phore.  The  sucker-like 
organ  extended  from  the  under 
side  of  the  abdomen  of  Podu- 
rans. 

CoM-Mis'suRE.  The  nerves  con- 
necting two  ganglia. 

Com-press'ed.  Flattened  later- 
ally. 

Oon-col'o-rous.  Of  the  same 
color  as  another  part. 

Con'dyle.  In  insects,  a  process 
at  the  base  of  the  mandible, 
by  which  the  latter  is  articu- 
lated to  the  lower  end  of  the 
epicranium. 

Con'flu-ent.  Flowing  or  grow- 
ing together. 

Con-nate'.  United;  not  sepa- 
rated by  an  articulated  suture; 
also  applies  to  the  union  of 
the  elytra  where  the  hind 
wings  are  absent. 

Cor'bel.  a  more  or  less  oval 
space  at  the  distal  end  of  the 
tibia  in  beetles,  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  fringe  of  short 
minute  bristles. 

CoR-Btc'u-LA.  The  pollen-bas- 
ket; formed  by  the  hollow 
outer  surface  of  the  hind  tibia 
of  bees,  with  hairs  on  the  side 
and  some  bent  over  to  keep 
the  load  of  pollen  in  place. 

Cordate.     Heart-shaped. 

Co-ri-a'ce-ous.     Leathery. 

Gor'nk-ous.     Horny,  chitiuoua. 


Cor'ni-cle.  The  pair  of  tubes 
oiv  vt .!  end  of  the  abdomen  or 
Aphides.     (Siphunculus.) 

CoRTi-CAL.  Relating  to  the  cor- 
tfex  or  inner  skin;  external,  as 
opposed  to  medullary. 

Costal  (Lat.  costa,  a  rib).  Re- 
lating to  the  ribs. 

Cre-mas'ter.  The  stout  spine 
at  the  end  of  the  pupae  of 
Lepidoptera. 

Cre'nate.  Scalloped,  with 
rounded  teeth. 

Crib  Ri-FORM  (Lat.  cribi-um,  a 
sieve ;  foi'ina,  form).  With 
perforations  like  those  of  a 
sieve. 

Crop.  A  partial  dilatation  of 
the  gullet  or  oesophagus,  the 
ingluvies  ;  in  many  insects  the 
fore  stomach  or  proventicu- 
lus. 

Crura  (Lat.  crus,  a  leg).   A  prop. 

Cte-nid'i-um  (Gr.  ktenion,  a 
comb).  Comb-like  structures 
situated  on  various  parts  of  in- 
sects, especially  fleas,  Nycteri- 
bia,  etc. 

Cu'bi-tus.  The  vein  just  be- 
hind the  radius,  or  median,  in 
dragon -flies,  etc. 

Cul-tel'lus.  One  of  the  blade- 
like mandibles  of  flies. 

Cul'tri-form.  Shaped  like  a 
pruning  knife. 

Cu-NEi-FORM.    Wedge-shaped. 

Cu'pRE-ous.     Coppery  in  color. 

Cu-PULi-FORM.  Like  a  cupule  ; 
Lat.  cupula,  a  little  tub. 

Cu  Ti-CLE.  The  outermost  layer 
of  the  integument. 


GLOSSARY. 


341 


De-cid'u  ous.  Relating  to  parts 
which  fall  off  or  are  shed  dur- 
ing life,  as  the  gills  of  the 
frog,  etc. 

Dentate.  Furnishedwith teeth. 

Den  Ti-CLE.     A  small  tooth. 

De-pressed.  Inclined  down- 
ward, or  flattened  from  above 
downward. 

Der-ma-top  te-ra  (Gr.  derma, 
skin;  pteron,  wing).  The  ear- 
wigs. 

Deu-tom'a-l^.  The  third  pair 
of  head  appendages  of  Myrio- 
poda. 

Di-chop'tic.  Separation  of  the 
eyes  by  the  front  in  all  females 
and  some  males  of  certain 
Diptera  (Helophilus,  etc.). 

Dif-fer-en-ti-a'tion.  The  spe- 
cialization or  setting  apart  of 
special  organs  for  special  work, 
as  the  specialization  of  the 
hand  of  man  as  compared  with 
the  fore  foot  of  other  mam- 
mals ;  also  applied  to  the 
special  development  during 
embryonic  life  of  parts  adapted 
for  peculiar  or  special  func- 
tions. 

Dig'it.     a  finger  or  toe. 

Di-GONEU-TiSM.  The  power  of 
producing  two  broods  in  a  sea- 
son. 

Di-lat'ed.  Widened,  expanded. 

Di-mid'i-ate.     Half  round. 

Di-(e'cious.  (Gr.  dis,  two ; 
oikos,  house).  With  distinct 
sexes. 

DiPTE-RA  (Gr.  dis,  two;  pteron, 
wing).  Two-winged  flies ;  an 
order  of  insects. 


Dis-coi'dal.  Relating  to  the 
disk  or  middle;  discal. 

Distal.  Applied  to  the  farther 
end  of  a  joint. 

Di-VAR  i-cat-ed.  Spreading 

apart. 

Di-ver-tic'u-ltjm.  An  offshoot 
from  a  vessel  or  from  the  ali- 
mentary canal. 

Do-LAB  Ri-FORM.  Hatchct-shap- 
ed. 

Dor'sum.  In  Diptera,  the  whole 
upper  surface  of  tlie  thorax, 
limited  laterally  by  the  dorso- 
pleural  sutures,  posteriorly  by 
the  scutelluni,  and  anteriorly 
by  Che  neck. 

Duct.  A  tube  or  passage  usu- 
ally 'eading  irom  glands. 

Ec-dy'sis  (Gr.  ekdusis,  casting 
off).  The  process  of  casting  the 
skin;  moulting. 

E-dent'u-lous.  Destituteof  teeth. 

Egg-burster.  A  projecting 
ridge  or  point  on  the  head  or 
other  parts  of  certain  embryos 
used  in  breaking  open  the  egg- 
shell, in  hatching. 

E-la'ter.  The  spring  or  forked 
"tail  "  of  Podurans. 

El'y-tra  (Gr.  elutron,  a  sheath). 
The  fore-wings  of  beetles, 
serving  to  cover  or  sheathe  the 
hind  wings. 

E-mar'gi-nate.  With  an  ob- 
tuse incision. 

Em-bo'li-um.  The  lobes  on  each 
side  of  the  prothorax  in  He- 
miptera  (Fieber). 

Em'bry-o.  The  germ  or  young 
animal  before  leaving  the  egg 
or  body  of  the  parent. 


342 


GLOSSARY. 


Em  po'di-um.  The  spurious  claw 
(pseudonychia)  situated  be- 
tween the  two  normal  claws; 
e.g.,  Lucanus. 

En'  te-ron  (Gr.  enteron).  A  gen- 
eral term  applied  to  tlie  diges- 
tive canal  as  a  whole. 

En-tire'.  With  a  simple,  not  in- 
dented, edge. 

Ep'i-lobe.  In  Carabidse,  a  lateral 
appendage  of  the  lobes  of  the 
mentum. 

Epi-phar'ynx,  The  soft  fold  or 
projection  within  the  mouth 
situated  under  the  labrum. 

E-piph'y-sis.  In  Lepidoptera,  a 
stout  spur  on  the  fore  tibia. 
Any  projecting  process. 

E-Pi-PLEURA.  The  portion  of  the 
elytron  of  a  beetle  bordering 
the  inner  edge  of  the  inflexed 
portion  of  the  elytron.  (Le 
Conte.) 

E-pis'to-ma.  That  part  of  the 
face  of  flies  situated  between 
the  front  and  the  labrum;  the 
clypeus. 

E-RU'CA.     Caterpillar. 

EX-CISED.      Cut  off. 

Ex-curv'ed.     Curved  outwards. 

Ex'PLA-NATE.  Spread  or  flatten- 
ed out. 

Ex-sert'ed.  Protruded,  thrust 
out;  opposed  to  enclosed. 

Ex-Tj'vi-UM.  The  cast  skin  of  in- 
sects; exuviate,  to  cast  the  skin ; 
to  moult. 

Fa'cies.      The  face,  in  Diptera. 

Pal'cate.     Sickle-shaped. 

Far'i-nose.    Mealy. 

Fas'cta.  a  stripe  broader  than 
a  line. 


Fau'na.  An  assemblage  of  ani- 
mals peopling  any  given  region 
or  country. 

Fa-vose'.     Pitted,   scrobiculate. 

Fe-nes'trat-ed.  Marked  with 
transparent  spots  surrounded 
by  a  darker  color,  like  window- 
panes. 

Fer-ru"gi-nou8.     Rust-colored. 

FiL-i-FORM.     Thread-like. 

Fim'bri-ate.     Fringed. 

Fis-sip'a-rous  (Lat.  fissus,  cleft; 
pario,  to  bring  forth).  Ap- 
plied to  a  form  of  asexual  gen- 
eration where  the  parent  splits 
into  two  parts,  each  part  be- 
coming a  new  individual. 

Fla-gel'lum.  The  terminal  di- 
vision of  the  antenna,  in  wasps, 
bees,  etc. 

Fla-^^s'cent.  Somewhat  yel- 
low. 

Flex'u-ous.     Almost  zigzag. 

Fo-li-a'ceous.      Leaf-like. 

Fo-ra'men.  An  opening;  a  per- 
foration. 

Forci-pat-ed.     Forceps-like. 

FoRNi-CATE.  Concave  within 
and  convex  without. 

Fo'vE-A.     A  rounded  cavity, 

Fo-ve'o-late.  Covered  super- 
ficially with  cavities  like  a 
honeycomb. 

Free.  Unrestrained  in  articulat- 
ed movement;  not  soldered  at 
the  points  of  contact. 

Fren'u-lum.  Diminutive  of 
frenum,  a  bridle,  or  band.  The 
sameasfrenura;  or,  in  Cicadae, 
the  triangular  lateral  piece  on 
the  mesonotum  which  connects 
with  the  trochlea. 


\ 


GLOSSARY. 


343 


Fre'nttm.  a  lunate  or  triangu- 
lar portion  at  the  inner  and 
hinder  base  of  the  wing,  in 
Trichoptera  and  Odonata. 

Front.  The  fore  face  bounded 
by  the  vertex,  eyes,  and  often 
beneath  by  the  epistoma  or 
clypeus. 

Fui/cRUM.  The  chitinized  walls 
of  the  pharynx. 

Fu-I;Ig'i-nous.  Of  the  color  of 
dark  smoke. 

FuL-vo-^NE-ous.  Brazen,  with 
a  tinge  of  brownish-yellow. 

FuL'votJS.  Tawny,  color  of 
the  common  deer. 

FuNi-CLE.  A  small  cord;  a  slender 
stalk.  Thatpartof  certainauten- 
nse  between  the  scape  and  club. 

Fur'cat-ed.     Forked. 

Fus'co-TES-TACEous.  '  Dull  red- 
dish brown. 

Fus'cous.  Dark  brown,  ap- 
proaching black. 

Fu'si-FORM.  Shaped  like  a 
spindle  ;  e.g.,  the  antennae  of 
the  sphinges. 

Ga'le-a.  The  middle  division  of 
the  maxilla,  situated  between 
the  lacinia  and  palpiger. 

Gang'li-on  (Gr.  gagglion,  a  swell- 
ing or  lump).  A  centre  of  the 
nervous  system,  consisting  of 
nerve-cells  and  fibres. 

Gem'i-nate.  Arranged  in  pairs; 
twin. 

Gkm-mip'a-rous  {Qv.gemma,\)\iA; 
pa/rio,  to  bring  forth).  Ap- 
plied to  a  form  of  asexual  gen- 
eration where  new  individuals 
arise  as  buds  from  the  body  of 
the  parent 


Ge'na.     Cheek. 

Ge-nic'u-late  (Lat.  geniculatus). 
Bent  abruptly  like  a  knee  or 
elbow;  elbowed. 

Gib'bous.     Inflated,  swollen. 

Glabrous.  Smooth;  opposed 
to  hairy;  downy,  villous. 

Gland.  A  cellular  sac  which 
secretes,  i.e.  separates,  certain 
constituen  ts  of  the  blood.  The 
liver  is  a  gland  secreting  bile; 
the  kidneys  excrete  urine. 

Glaucous.  Bluish  green  or  gray. 

Glo-bose'.     Globular,  .spherical. 

Gnath'ite.  a  jaw  or  jaw  like 
appendage.  The  gnathites  aro 
the  mouth-parts. 

Gon-a-poph'y-sis.  (Gr.  ^ro/ie,  fe- 
male; apophysis,  process).  Two 
pairs  of  elongated  processes  in 
the  cockroach,  arising  froi:i  the 
8th  and  9th  abdominal  rings. 
(Huxley.)  They  appear  to  be 
the  equivalents  of  the  rhabdites 
composing  the  ovipositor  of 
other  insects. 

Go-Nop'o-DA  (Gr.  gone,  genera- 
tion; pous,  podos,  foot).  The 
modified  first  pair  of  abdomi- 
nal appendages  of  the  male  lob- 
ster, shrimps,  and  crabs. 

Hab'i-tat.  The  place  or  region 
an  insect  inhabits. 

Hal'ter-es  (Gr.  Jialteres,  pois- 
ers).  Balancers:  the  rudiment- 
ary hind  wings  of  Diptera. 

Ha'mate.  Furnished  with  hooks. 

Ham'ule.     a  little  hook. 

Hast' ate.     Halberd-shaped. 

Haus'tel-late.  Furnished  with 
a  proboscis  so  as  to  take  food 
by  suction. 


344 


GLOSSARY. 


Hem-el'y-tra.  Applied  to  the 
partly  thickened  fore  wings  of 
Hemiptera. 

He-mip'te-ra  (Gr.  hejni,  half; 
pteron,  wing).  An  order  of 
insects  with  the  fore  wings 
partly  opaque,  which  are  called 
hemelytra. 

Her-maph'ro-dite  (Gr.  Hermes, 
Mercury;  Aphrodite,  Venus). 
Any  animal  having  the  organs 
of  both  sexes,  usually  the 
ovary  and  testes,  combined  in 
the  same  individual. 

Het-e-ro'ce-ra  (Gr.  heteros, 
different;  keras,  horn).  The 
moths,  in  which  the  antennae 
are  of  different  shapes,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  those  of  but- 
terflies. 

Het-e-rog'a-my.  Parthenogene- 
sis ;  applied  to  those  cases  in 
v/hich  two  sexual  generations 
or  a  se.xual  and  parthenoge- 
netic  generation  alternate. 

Het-e-rog'y-na.  (Gr.  Jieteros,  dif- 
ferent; gune,  woman).  The 
ants;  referring  to  the  different 
kinds  of  individuals  of  ants, 
i.e.,  the  females  and  work- 
ers, as  distinguished  from  the 
males. 

Hex-ap'o  Dous.  Provided  with 
six  feet. 

Hi-BER-NAC'u-LXJM.  A  tent 
made  out  of  a  leaf  in  which 
the  larva  hides  or  hiber- 
nates. 

Hir-sute',  Clothed  with  stiff 
hairs. 

HoL-op  TIC.  Contiguity  of  the 
eyes  in  the  male  fly,  between 


the  vertex  and  the  antennae 
(Williston.) 

Ho-MOLo-GY  (Gr.  Jiomologia, 
agreement).  Implies  identity 
in  structure  between  organs 
which  may  have  different  uses; 
as  the  fin  of  a  whale,  and  the 
foot  of  a  dog,  or  a  bird's  wing. 
Homology  implies  blood -rela- 
tionship, i.e.,  a  community  of 
origin  between  parts  which 
may  have  distinct  uses. 

HuME-RAL.  Relating  to  the  hu- 
merus. 

Hu'me-rus.  The  anterior  supe- 
rior angle  of  the  thorax  in  Dip- 
tera. 

Hy'a-line.     Transparent. 

Hy'da-tid.  The  bladder-worm, 
or  the  cystic  stage  of  a  tape- 
worm. 

Hy-men-opte  RA  (Gr.  humen, 
hymen,  or  membrane;  pteron,, 
wing).  An  order  of  insects 
with  two  pairs  of  membranous 
wings. 

Hypo-derm.  The  cellular  layer 
which  secretes  the  chitinous 
cuticula. 

Hypo-glottis.  A  piece  situat- 
ed between  the  mentum  and 
labium  in  Clavicorn  and  Serri- 
corn  beetles. 

Hy-pom'e-ra  (Gr.  hupo,  under; 
meron,  part).  The  inflexed 
sides  of  the  elytra  of  beetles. 
(Casey.) 

Hy-po-phak'ynx.  The  lingua; 
Huxley  restricts  it  to  the  base 
of  the  lingua. 

Hy-po-pyg'i-um.  The  male  sex- 
ual organs  and  terminal  seg- 


GLOSSARY. 


345 


ments  of  the  abdomen  in  Dip- 
tera. 

Hy-pos'to-ma.  The  clypeus  in 
Diptera. 

I-MAGO.  The  final,  or  fourth, 
winged  and  adult  state  of  in- 
sects. 

In-ci'sdres.  The  sutures  sepa- 
rating the  segments. 

In-crass' AT-ED.  Rounded  and 
somewhat  swollen. 

In' Fu-M  AT-ED.     Clouded. 

In-fus'cat-ed.  Darkened,  with 
a  blackish  tinge. 

In-glu'vi-es.     The  crop. 

In-sti'tia.  a  stria  of  equal 
breadth  throughout. 

1n-ter-rupt'ed.  Suddenly 
stopped. 

In'vo-lut-ed.  Rolled  inwards 
spirally. 

Ir'ro-rat-ed.  Freckled;  sprin- 
kled with  atoms. 

La-cin'i-a  (Lat.  lacinia,  a  lappet). 
The  first  or  innermost  division 
of  the  maxilla. 

La-cin'i-ate.  Cut  into  sharp 
lobes;  jagged;  toothed,  as  on 
the  inner  edge  of  the  lacinia. 

La-mel'li-form.     Leaf-like. 

Lam'i-na.  a  plat  or  sheet-like 
piece. 

Lar'va  (Lat.  larva,  a  mask). 
The  second  stage  of  the  insect; 
a  caterpillar,  grub,  or  maggot. 

Lar'vi-form.     Larva-shaped. 

Lat-e-ri'ti-otjs.  Brick  color, 
inclining  towards  yellow. 

Leg,  false.  One  of  the  abdom- 
inal legs  of  a  caterpillar. 

Lev'i-gate.  With  a  smooth, 
somewhat  shining  surface. 


LiG-Niv'o-Rous.     Eating  wood. 

Lig'u-late.     Strap-shaped. 

Lim'bate.  When  a  disk  is  sur 
rounded  by  a  margin  of  a  dif- 
ferent color. 

LiNE-AR.  Like  a  line,  or  thread- 
like. 

Line- AT-ED.  Provided  with 
line-like  marks. 

LoRA.  The  submentum;  small 
corneous  cords  upon  which  the 
base  of  the  proboscis  is  seated. 
(Say.) 

Lu'men.  The  cavity  of  an  organ. 

LuNULE.  A  crescent-shaped  fig- 
ure or  spot. 

MAC-RO-CHiE'T^.  Bristles,  or 
large  stiff  setae,  on  the  thorax 
and  legs,  never  on  the  head, 
of  certain  Diptera  (Volucella, 
etc.).     (Williston.) 

Ma-lip  E-DES.  The  fourth  and 
fifth  pairs  of  head -appendages 
of  chilopod  Myriopods. 

Mal-loph'a  GA  {Gr. mallos,  wool; 
phagein,  to  eat).  The  bird-lice, 
a  sub-order  of  Platyptera. 

Man'di-ble  (Lat.  mando,  to 
chew).  The  first  pair  of  mouth- 
appendages. 

Man-dib'u-late.  Provided  with 
mandibles. 

Mar'gin-at-ed.  Surrounded  by 
an  elevated  or  attenuated  mar- 
gin. 

Max-il'la  (Lat.  maxilla,  a  jaw, 
the  dimin.  of  mala).  The  sec- 
ond and  third  pairs  of  mouth- 
appendages;  the  second  pair 
being  united  and  usually  called 
the  labium. 

Me-cap'te-ra    (Gr.  7necas,  long; 


346 


GLOSSARY. 


pteron,  wing).  The  order  of 
iusects  represented  by  Panor- 
pa. 

Mel'an-ism  (Gr.  melas,  black). 
Where  an  insect  is  abnormally 
or  unusually  dark. 

Mem-bka-naceous.  Thin; skin- 
ny; semi-tran.sparent  like 
parchment. 

Men'tum  (Lat.,  the  chin).  The 
basal  piece  or  sclerite  of  the 
labium  or  second  maxillae  of 
insects.  Submentum  is  the 
posterior  division  of  the  men- 
turn. 

3Ies-en'te-ron.  The  mid-gut  or 
stomach. 

JVIet  a-meke.  The  .same  as  so- 
mites or  arthromeres. 

Mo-nil'i-form.  Like  a  string 
of  beads. 

Mo-NCECious  (Gr.  monos,  single; 
oikos,  house).  With  both 
kinds  of  sexual  glands,  etc., 
existing  in  the  same  individ- 
ual. 

Mu'cRO-NATE.  Ending  suddenly 
in  a  sharp  point. 

MuTic.     Unarmed. 

Myr-i-op'o-da  (Gr.  murios,  thou- 
sand; pous,  podos,  foot).  The 
class  of  Tracheates  compris- 
ing the  Millipedes  and  Centi- 
pedes. 

Mys'tax.  In  certain  Diptera,  a 
patch  of  bristles  or  hairs,  im- 
mediately above  the  mouth,  on 
the  lower  part  of  the  hypostoma, 
below  the  vibrissae.     (Say.) 

Ne-phrid'i-a  (Gr.  nephros,  kid- 
ney). The  segmental  organs 
of  worms,  etc. 


Neu-ra'tion.  Sometimes  used 
for  the  venation  or  system  of 
veins  of  the  wing. 

Neu-rop'te-ra  (Gr.  neuron, 
nerve;  pteron,  wing).  The  or- 
der of  net-veined  insects  with 
a  complete  metamorphosis. 

NiD-A-MENTAi..  Referring  to  a 
nest,  or  egg-sac. 

Node.  A  knot;  a  knob;  nodi- 
form,  node-shaped. 

Nodus.  A  stout,  oblique,  short 
vein  in  the  Odonata,  at  the 
place  where  the  anterior  mar- 
gin of  the  wings  is  somewhat 
drawn  in. 

Nymph.  Usually  used  as  an 
equivalent  of  pupa;  but  in 
insects  with  an  incomplete 
metamorphosis  applied  to  the 
whole  period  from  hatching 
to  the  complete  wnnged  stage; 
as  in  may-flies,  Orthoptera, 
etc. 

Ob-cordate.  Inversely  heart- 
shaped. 

Ob-o'vate.  Inversely  ovate;  the 
smaller  end  turned  towards  the 
base. 

Ob'so-lete.  Indistinct;  almost 
lost  to  view;  disused;  rvidi- 
mentary. 

Ob-tected.  Covered ;  con- 
cealed. 

O'cHRE-ous.  Of  a  more  or  less 
deep  ochre  color. 

O  do'na.  Applied  to  the  pecu- 
liar mouth-parts  of  Odonata 
(dragon-flies)  by  Fabricius,  on 
account  of  the  long  teeth  on 
the  labium,  etc. 

0-do-na  TA  (Gr.  odous,  odontos, 


GLOSSARY. 


347 


teeth).  (Derivation  obscure.) 
The  dragon -flies. 

CE-soph'a-gus  (Gr.  oisos,  a  reed; 
phagein,  to  eat).     The  gullet. 

Ol-i-va'ceous.  Olive-colored; 
rich  dark  green. 

On-tog'e-ny  (Gr.  on,  ontos,  be- 
ing; gene,  birth).  The  devel- 
opment of  the  individual,  as 
distinguished  from  that  of  the 
species. 

O-NYCHi-A  (Gr.  onwR, nail,  claw). 
A  small,  more  or  less  retrac- 
tile bristle  in  the  feet  of 
beetles;  the  empodium  of  flies; 
pseudonychium. 

0-PEii'cu-LUM.  In  flies  (Musca) 
equivalent  to  the  labrum- 
epipharynx,  the  latter  being 
composed  of  the  labrum  above 
and  epipharynx  below.  (Dim- 
mock.) 

O'ral.     Related  to  the  mouth. 

Orbit.  The  ring  surrounding 
the  eye. 

Or-thopte-ra.  (Gr.  ortJws, 
straight;  pteron,  wing).  The 
order  of  insects  with  straight 
narrow  fore  wings,  as  the 
grasshoppers. 

Os-MA-TERi-A  (Gr.  osmetos,  that 
can  be  smelt).  The  V-shaped 
retractile  scent -organs  of  the 
larval  Papilio. 

OsTi-A.  The  slit-like  openings 
of  the  heart. 

O-va'ri-ole.  An  ovarian  tube. 
(Huxley.) 

O-vip'a-rous  (Lat.  ovum,  an  egg; 
pario,  I  bring  forth).  Applied 
to  animals  bringing  forth  eggs 
instead  of  living,  active  young. 


O-vi-po-si'tion.  The  act  of  egg- 
laying. 

0-vi-Pos'i-TOR  (Lat.  ovum,  an 
egg;  pono,  I  place).  An  organ 
in  insects  homologous  with  the 
sting,  by  which  eggs  are  de- 
posited in  solid  substances. 

Ovi-SAC.  A  sac  or  bag-like  mem- 
brane attached  to  the  parent, 
and  containing  eggs. 

0-vo-vi-vip'a-rous  (Lat.  ovum, 
an  egg;  vivus,  alive;  pario,  I 
bring  forth).  Applied  to  such 
animals  as  retain  their  eggs 
in  the  body  until  they  are 
hatched. 

P^-do-gen'e-sis.  Parthenoge- 
nous  development  in  larval  in- 
sects. 

Pal-pa' Ri-UM.  In  Carabidae, 
etc.,  the  palpal  support;  the 
membrane  to  which  the  labial 
palpi  are  attached,  and  which 
admits  of  an  amount  of  exten- 
sion of  these  organs  not  per- 
missible when  they  are  fixed. 
(Horn.) 

Pa-pil'la.  a  minute  soft  pro- 
jection. 

Par-a-gloss'^.  Appendages  on 
each  side  of  the  ligula. 

Par-a-pleu'r^.  The  sternal 
side  pieces  in  beetles. 

Pa-rap'si-des  (Gr.  para,  near ; 
pteron,  wing).  Lateral  pieces 
of  the  meso-  and  metathorax 
on  each  side  of  the  scutellum. 

Par-o-nych'i-a  (Gr.  para,  near; 
onux,  claw,  nail).  One  or  more 
bristle-like  appendages  of  the 
onychium  or  pseudonychium. 

Parthe-no-gen'e-sis  (Gr.  par 


348 


GLOSSARY. 


thenos,  virgin;  genesis,  genera- 
tion). Reproduction  by  direct 
growth  of  germs  from  the  egg, 
without  fertilization  by  male 
germs  or  spermatozoa,  as  in  the 
aphis,  gall-insects,  tluke-worm, 
etc. 

Pa-ta'gi-um  (Gr.  patageion,  a 
stripe  or  border  to  a  dress). 
The  shoulder  tippets;  loose 
pieces  of  the  mesothorax,  on 
each  side  of  the  mesoscutum. 

Pe-dun'cu-late.  Situated  on  a 
peduncle,  or  stalk. 

Pel'li-cle.  a  thin  skin,  i.e., 
the  subimaginal  skin  shed  by 
the  May-fly. 

Per-is-to'mi-um.  The  border  of 
the  mouth,  or  oral  margin,  in 
Diptera. 

Per'i-treme.  The  piece  en- 
closing the  spiracle. 

Per-i-vis'ce-ral.  (Gr.  peri, 
around;  Lat.  viscera,  the  inter- 
nal organs,  especially  of  the 
abdominal  cavity).  The  body- 
cavity,  containing  the  alimen- 
tary canal  with  its  outgrowths. 

Pet'i-o-lat  ED.     Stalked. 

Pet'i-ole.     a  stalk. 

Pha-rtn'ge-al.  Relating  to  the 
pharynx. 

Pha.r'ynx  (Gr.  plmrugx).  The 
back  part  of  the  mouth  and 
upper  part  of  the  throat. 

Phy-log'e-ny  (Gr.  phulon,  stem; 
gene,  birth).  The  development 
by  evolution  of  the  members 
of  a  genus,  family,  order,  class, 
or  the  animal  kingdom  as  a 
whole. 

Phy-sap'o-da    (Gr.  phusa,   bel- 


lows; pous,  foot).     A  synonym 
of  the  Thysanoptera. 

Phy-toph'a-gous.  Eating  plants. 

PiCE-ous.  Pitchy;  the  color  of 
pitch;  shining  reddish  black. 

Pile.  Hair;  often  hair  arranged 
somewhat  in  rows. 

Pi-LIFE-Rous.  Pilose,  or  bear 
ing  hairs. 

Pi-lose'.  Clothed  with  pile,  or 
dense  short  down. 

Plan'ta.  Strictly  the  sole  or 
under  side  of  the  foot;  accord- 
ing to  Cheshire,  the  tirst  tarsal 
joint  of  bees. 

Plan'tu-la.  One  of  the  soles  or 
climbing  cushions  of  the  foot; 
also  one  lobe  of  the  divided 
pulvillus. 

Pla-typ'te-ra  (Gr.  plains,  flat; 
pteron,  wine).  The  order  of  in- 
sects represented  by  the  bird- 
lice,  white  ants,  Psocidaj  and 
Perlidse. 

Pleu'rum.  The  side  of  the  tho- 
rax; pleurites,  the  pieces  into 
which  the  pleurum  is  divided. 

Plexus  (Lat.  a  knot).  Applied 
to  a  knot-like  mass  of  nerves 
or  blood-vessels. 

PoDi-CAL  Plates.  The  two 
pieces  on  each  side  of  the  vent; 
thought  by  Huxley  to  be  rudi- 
ments of  an  eleventh  abdomi- 
nal ring;  united  they  form  the 
tergite  of  a  rudimentary  elev- 
enth abdominal  ring; 

PoLLi-NosE.  Dusted  over  with 
a  fine  powder. 

PoL-Y-ANDRY.  Where  a  female 
insect  mates  with  more  than 
one  male. 


GLOSSARY. 


349 


Po-lyg'a-my.  Where  a  male  in- 
sect mates  with  more  than  one 
female. 

PoL-Y-GO-NEUTisM.  The  power 
of  producing  several  broods  a 
season. 

Pke-o  iiAii.  In  front  of  the 
mouth. 

Pki'ma-ries.  The  fore  wings  of 
Lepidoptera. 

Proboscis.  The  mouth- parts 
adapted  for  sucking. 

Process.  A  projection;  used 
chietly  in  osteology. 

Proc-to-d^'um.  The  primitive 
hind  gut,  or  rectum. 

pRo-Du'cED.  Drawn  out;  pro- 
longed. 

Pro'leg,  or  Prop-leg.  One  of 
the  abdominal  legs  of  a  cater- 
pillar. 

Pro-py-gid'i-um.  The  dorsal 
segment  or  tergite  in  front  of 
thepygidium,sometimesleftex- 
posed  by  the  elytra,  in  beetles. 

Pro'te-an-dry.  The  appear- 
ance of  males  earlier  in  the 
season  than  females. 

Pro-tom'a-l^.  The  second  pair 
of  mouth-appendages  of  Myri- 
opoda;  the  so-called  mandibles. 

Pro'to-plas.m  (Gr.  protos,  first; 
plasma,  from  plasso,  I  mould). 
The  albuminous,  elementary 
matter  forming  cells  and  the 
body-substance  of  Pfotozoa. 

Prox'i-mal  (Lat.  proximus,  next). 
The  fixed  end  of  a  limb,  bone, 
or  appendage;  that  nearest  the 
body;  opposed  to  distal,  the 
farther  end. 

Pru  I  NOSE.     Hoary;  frosted. 


PsEU-Do-NYCii  i-a.  The  spu- 
rious or  third  claw;  empo- 
dium. 

PsEU-Do-TRA'cnE-.<E.  The  tra- 
chealike,  chitinous,  cylindrical 
channels  in  the  labellaof  certain 
flies,  the  ends  of  which  project 
beyond  the  edge  of  the  fleshy 
flaps  (labella)  and  seem  to  file 
away  the  substances  on  which 
the  fly  feeds.     (Dimmock.) 

Pter-o-gos'tic.  Referring  to  the 
wings. 

Pu-BEs'CENT.  Coated  with  very 
fine  hairs. 

Pulver'u-lent.     Dusty. 

Pul-vil'lus  (Lat.  a  little  cush- 
ion). The  pad  between  the 
two  claws  of  the  feet.  When 
divided  into  two  or  three  lobes, 
each  lobe  is  sometimes  errone- 
ously called  a  pulvillus. 

PuNCTUR-ED.  Marked  with  nu- 
merous small  impressed  dots; 
punctate. 

Pu'PA  (Lat.  a  doll).  The  third 
or  usually  quiescent,  chrysalis 
stage  of  insects. 

Pupate.      To  become  a  pupa. 

Pu-PATioN.  The  act  of  becom- 
ing a  pupa. 

Py-gid'i-um.  The  rudimentary 
terminal  abdominal  segment  of 
insects;  in  beetles  the  last  dor- 
sal segment  left  exposed  by  the 
elytra;  more  properly  applica- 
ble to  the  last  abdominal  seg- 
ment of  trilobites. 

Ra-dic'u-la.  Radicle;  the  basal 
joint  of  the  antenna,  attached 
to  the  head. 

Ra'di-us.     The  vein  just  behind 


350 


GLOSSARY. 


the  subcostal  vein,  the  median 
vein  of  Lepidoptera. 

Rap-to'ri-al.  Adapted  for  seiz- 
ing prey. 

Re-cli'vate.  Curved  in  a  con- 
vex, then  in  a  concave,  line. 

Re-curved'.   Curved  backwards. 

Ren'i-form.     Kidney-shaped. 

Re-pand'.  Wavy;  vs^ith  alter- 
nate segments  of  circles  and 
intervening  angles. 

Re-tic'u-lat-ed.  Marked  like 
network. 

Re  trorse'.  (Sinuate)  pointing 
backwards;  (serrate)  inversely 
serrated. 

Re-tuse'.  Ending  in  an  obtuse 
sinus  or  broad,  shallow  notch. 

Rev-olute.     Rolled  backwards. 

Rhab'di  TES.  The  blade-like  ele- 
ments of  the  sting  and  oviposi- 
tor of  insects. 

Rhop-a-loc'e  ra  (Gr.  rliopalon, 
a  club;  her  as,  horn).  Those 
Lepidoptera  with  club-shaped 
antennte,  i.e.,  the  butterflies. 

Ri-mose'.     Full  of  cracks. 

RiNGENT.     Gaping. 

Rostrum.     A  beak. 

Ru-FEs'cENT.  Somewhat  red- 
dish. 

Ru'fous.     Reddish. 

Ru-gose'.     Wrinkled. 

Run'ci-nate.  Notched;  cut  into 
several  transverse,  acute  seg- 
ments which  point  backwards. 
(Say.) 

Sac'cate.  Gibbous,  or  inflated 
towards  one  end. 

Sag'it-tal.  Equivalent  to  lon- 
gitudinal. 

San-guin'e-ous.     Blood  red. 


Scabrous.      Rough  like  a  file, 

with  small  raised  dots. 
ScALLop-ED.     Edge  marked  by 
rounded  hollows  without  inter- 
vening angles. 

ScAL-PELLUs.  One  of  the  lancet- 
like maxilloe  of  flies. 

Scape.  The  basal  joint  of  cer- 
tain antennae  (LeConte);  usu- 
ally applied  to  the  three  basal 
joints,  as  in  Hymenoptera,  etc. ; 
by  some  authors  the  second 
antennal  joint. 

ScAP'u-LA.  The  shoulder-tippets, 
patagia,  or  tegulse,  in  Lepi- 
doptera. 

Scle'rite.  a  single  portion 
of  an  insect's  skin  or  integu- 
ment, separated  by  suture  from 
the  adjoining  parts;  the  scu- 
tum, scutellum,  or  sternum  is 
a  sclerite. 

Sco'PA.  The  stout  bristles  on 
the  hind  tibite  of  bees,  aiding 
in  forming  the  corbicula. 

Scop'u-LA.  The  bristles  cover- 
ing the  inside  of  the  plantae, 
especially  of  the  hind  feet; 
scop(i  of  Schrank.     (Say.) 

Scro-bic'u-late.  Pitted;  hav- 
ing the  surface  covered  with 
hollows;  favose. 

Scute.  Applied  to  the  dorsal 
pieces  in  Myriopods. 

Se  BiFic.     Oily;  sebaceous. 

Sec'ond-a-ries.  The  hind  wings 
of  Lepidoptera. 

Sec'tors.  Longitudinal  veins  in 
Odonata  which  strike  the  prin- 
cipal veins  at  an  angle,  and 
usually  reach  the  apex  or  hind 
margin  of  the  wing. 


GLOSSARY. 


351 


Se-cu'ri-form.  Hatchet-shaped; 
dolabrifoiin. 

Septum.     A  partition. 

Sericeous.  Having  the  sur- 
face with  a  silk-like  gloss,  usu- 
ally from  the  presence  of  mi- 
nute, dense  hairs. 

Ser  RAT-ED.  Like  the  teeth  of 
a  saw. 

Sessile.     Having  no  stalk. 

Se-ta'ce-ous  (Lat.  seta,  a  bristle). 
Bristle-like. 

Se-tose'.     Bristly;  setous. 

Sin'u-at-ed.  Sinuous,  winding; 
with  the  edge  scooped  out. 

So-MATic.    Relating  to  the  body. 

So'mite.  a  segment  of  a  seg- 
mented animal,  such  as  a 
worm. 

Spat'u-late.  Battle-door,  or 
spoon-shaped. 

Sper-ma-the'ca.  The  sac  or 
reservoir  in  the  female  con- 
taining the  spermatic  particles. 

Spi'nose.  Full  of  spines;  spin- 
ous. 

Spir'a-cle  (Lat.  spiro,  I  breathe). 
The  breathing-hole,  or  lateral 
opening  into  the  trachea. 

Spurious.  Applied  sometimes 
to  the  clawless,  rudimentary 
feet  of  the  Nymphalid  butter- 
flies. 

Squa'ma.  The  small  scale  above 
thehalteresof  Muscids;  tegula. 

Squam'u-la.  a  very  small,  cor- 
neous, concavo-convex  scale, 
covering  the  base  of  the  fore 
wings  in  some  insects.     (Say.) 

Squar'rose.  Scurfy;  consist- 
ing of  rough  scales  spreading 
every  way.     (Say.) 


Ste-thii)'i-um.  Antiquated 
name  for  thorax. 

Stigma.  A  spiracle,  or  breath- 
ing-hole; stigmatal,  relating  to 
the  stigma. 

Stig'ma-ta  (6r.  stigma,  a  mark). 
A  synonym  of  spiracles. 

Sti'pes.  The  second  division  of 
the  maxilla,  articulated  to  the 
cardo,  and  bearing  the  two 
lobes  and  palpi. 

Stip'i-tate.  Supported  on  a 
pedicle. 

Stom-o-D-4;um.  The  primitive 
mouth  and  oesophagus  of  the 
embrj^o  of  worms  and  Arthro- 
poda. 

Steep-sip'te-ra  (Gr.  strepJiis, 
a  twist;  pteron,  wing).  A 
group  of  beetles  whose  minute 
front  wings  appear  as  if 
twisted. 

Striate.  With  more  or  less 
parallel  furrows,  grooves,  or 
depressed  lines;  channelled. 

Stri  GA.  A  small,  short,  linear, 
transverse  line. 

Stri'gate.     With  strigae. 

Sub.  Somewhat;  approximate 
to;  prefixed  to  many  terms  in 
descriptive  entomology. 

Sub-ad-un'cate.  Somewhat 
hooked  or  curved. 

Sub-e-rod'ed.  Somewhat  in- 
dented, but  irregularly  so. 

Sub-im-a'go.  In  May- flies,  the 
penultimate  stage  in  those 
which  moult  once  after  acquir- 
ing their  wings.  Proimago 
(Lubbock). 

Sub-stig'ma-tal.  Applied  to  a 
line  in  caterpillars  situated  just 


352 


GLOSSABT. 


under  the  row  of  stigmata  or 
spiracles. 

Subulate.     Awl-shaped. 

Suc-cinc'ti  (Lat.  succinctus, 
bound  round).  Those  chrysa- 
lids  of  butterflies  which  are 
held  in  place  by  a  silken  cord 
passing  around  the  body. 

Suc-TORiAL.  Adapted  for  suck- 
ing. 

Sul'cate.  With  groove-like  ex- 
cavations. 

Sus-pen'si  (Lat.  suspensus,  sus- 
pended). Those  butterflies 
whose  chrysalids  are  suspend- 
ed by  the  tail,  i.e.,  cremaster, 
head  downward. 

Su'ture.  a  seam  or  impressed 
line  between  the  bones  of  the 
skull,  or  parts  of  the  crust  of 
an  Arthropod. 

Su-tu'ri  FORM.  Suture-shaped; 
a  suturiform  articulation  is 
where  a  slight  suture  is  visible, 
as  sometimes  two  abdominal 
segments  in  Ichneumons  are 
soldered  together  without  a 
trace  of  a  suture  between  them. 

Tactile.  Relating  to  the  sense 
of  touch. 

T.iE-nid'i-um.  The  band  or  chiti- 
nous  fibre  forming  a  part  of 
the  so-called  "spiral  thread" 
of  the  trachetB  of  insects. 

Tawny.  Fulvous;  a  pale,  dirty 
yellow. 

Teo'men  (Lat.  tego,  to  cover). 
Formerly  applied  to  the  fore 
wings  of  Orthoptera,  Cicada, 
etc.;  a  wing-cover. 

Teg'u-la.  The  broad  covering 
scale   under  the  base  of    the 


wing  in  Diptera;  some  authors 
call  it  squama;  in  Lepidoptera, 
the  shoulder-tippets,  or  pa- 
iagium. 

Tel'son  (Gr.  telson,  from  telos, 
end).  The  rudimentary  termi- 
nal segment  of  the  abdomen 
of  Arthropods,  especially  Crus- 
tacea. 

Ten'e-ral  (Lat.  tetier,  tender). 
A  state  of  the  May-fly  after 
exclusion  from  the  pupa,  in 
which  it  has  not  fully  com- 
pleted its  coloring,  clothing, 
etc. ;  the  subimago. 

Ten-tac'u-lum  (Lat.  tento,  I 
touch).     A  feeler  or  tentacle. 

Ten-tori  um.  A  chitinous 
framework  within  the  head, 
upon  which  the  brain  rests,  the 
oesophagus  passing  upwards 
between  its  anterior  crura  or 
props. 

Terete'.     Nearly  cylindrical. 

Ter'gum  (Lat.  back).  The  dor- 
sal region  of  Arthropods. 

Tes'sel-late.  Spotted  like  a 
checker-board. 

Tes-ta'ceous.  Dull  red;  brick 
color. 

Tho'rax  (Gr.  thorax,  a  breast, 
plate).  The  middle  region  of 
the  body  in  insects  and  some 
Crustacea. 

Thys  a-nu'ra.  (Gr.  thnsanoi, 
fringes;  oura,  tail).  The  low- 
est order  of  insects. 

To-men-tose'.  Covered  with 
tine  matted  hairs. 

To-rose'.  Protuberant;  swell- 
ing into  knobs  or  tuberosi- 
ties 


GLOSSARY. 


h:)3 


Tra'che-a  (Gr.  tracJieia,  the 
rough  windpipe).  The  respira- 
tory tube  in  vertebrates;  the 
air-tube    of  tracheate    insects. 

Tri-chot'o-mous.  Dividing  by- 
threes. 

Tri-cus'pi-date,  Ending  in 
three  points. 

Tri-dac'ty-lus.  Having  three 
toes  or  claws. 

Trig'o-nate.     Three-cornered. 

Trig-o-neu'tism.  Where  three 
broods  occur  in  a  season. 

Tri-que  TRAL.  Having  three 
more  or  less  long  angles;  three- 
cornered;  triquetrous. 

Tro-chan'ter  (Gr.  trochanter, 
the  ball  on  the  femur).  In  in- 
sects, the  small,  short  joint  be- 
tween the  coxa  and  femur. 

Tro-chan'tin.  a  piece  often 
present  on  the  outer  side  of, 
and  sometimes  movable  on,  the 
coxa. 

Troch'le-a.  The  thickened 
base  of  the  hind  wings,  in 
Cicada  and  Trichoptera. 

Tro'phi.  Old  term  for  the 
mouth-parts  taken  collectively. 

Trun'cat-ED.  Cut  squarely  off; 
docked. 

Tu-ber'cu-lose.  Covered  with 
tubercles. 

Un'ci-nate.   Hooked  at  the  end. 

Un-guic'u-lus  (Lat.  a  little 
claw).  A  claw  at  the  end  of  a 
foot. 

U-ro-mere'  (Gr,  ouros,  tail  ; 
meros,  a  part).  Any  of  the 
abdominal  segments  of  an  Ar- 
thropod. 

U-Rop'o-DA  (Gr.  ouros,  tail;  pons. 


pod/  foot).  Any  of  the  ab- 
dom      "  feet  of  Arthropoda. 

U'ro-some  (Gr.  ouros,  tail; 
meros,  a  part).  The  abdomen 
of  Arthropods. 

U-RO-STERNiTE.  The  stemal  or 
under  piece  of  the  uromeres  or 
abdominal  segments  of  insects. 

Val'vule.  a  small  valve-like 
process. 

Vein.  Applied  to  the  ribs  or 
"nerviu'es"  of  the  wings  of 
insects  ;  the  branches  of  the 
veins  are  called  venules. 

Ve'lum.  a  broad  process  at  the 
inner  end  of  the  fore  tibia  of 
bees. 

Venation.  The  system  of 
veins  of  the  wings. 

Venter.  The  whole  under  sur- 
face of  the  abdomen. 

Ven'tral.  Applied  to  the  under 
side  of  the  abdomen,  or  of  the 
body  of  invertebrates. 

Ver'mi-form.     Worm-shaped. 

Ver-ric'u-late.  With  thickset 
tufts  of  parallel  hairs. 

Ver'ru-cose.  Covered  with 
wart-like  prominences. 

Vertex.     Crown  of  the  head. 

Ver-ti-cil'late.  Placed  in 
whirls. 

Ves'i-cle  (Lat.  vesica,  a  bladder). 
A  little  sac,  bladder,  or  cyst. 

Vi-BRis'sA.  A  whisker;  curved 
bristles  or  hair-s  situated  in  cer- 
tain Diptera  between  the  mys- 
tax  and  the  antennae. 

Vil'lose.  Clothed  with  soft, 
rather  long  hairs. 

Vis'cE-RA  (Lat.  viscus).  The  in- 
ternal organs  of  the  body. 


354 


GLOSSARY. 


Vit'tatb   (Lat.  vltta,  a  stripe). 

Striped. 
Vi-viPA-ROUS  (Lat.  vivus,  alive; 

and  pario,  I  bring  forth).    Ap- 


plied to  animals  which  bring 
forth  their  young  alive. 
Xy-loph'a-gous.    Eating  wood. 


INDEX. 


Acanthomera  bellardii,  134 
Achatodes  zeae,  200 
Achorutes  uivicola,  57 
Acridiidse,  63 
Acrocera  bimaculata,  133 
Aculeata,  165 
Adelops  hirtus,  113 
Adephaga,  113 
^gialites  debilis,  103 
^schna  heros,  71 
Agaristidae,  157 
Ageronia  feronia,  161 
Agromyza  coronata,  126 
Agrotis  suffusa,  198 
Air-sacs,  20 

Aletia  argillacea,  154,  200 
Aleyrodes  corni,  80 
Alypia  8-maculata,  157 
American  silk-worm,  155 
Amphizoa  insolens,  114 
Ampulex  sibirica,  173 
Anasa  tristis,  84,  208 
Andreua,  186 

vicina,  176 
Angoumois  moth,  151 
Anisopteryx  vernata,  154 
Anisota  senatoria,  155 
Autherophagus  ochraceus,  111 
Anthicidse,  103 
Anthomyia  radicum,  206 

zeae,  199 
Anthomyidae,  130 
Anthophila,  176 


Anthrenus  scrophularise,  111 

Anthribus  cornutus,  99 

Auts,  170,  183 

Apatela,  155 

Aphaniptera,  115 

Aphides,  live,  examining,  281 
dissecting,  292 
preservation  of,  303 

Aphidius,  169 

Aphis,  80 

avenae,  196 
grain,  196 
hop,  208 

Aphoebantus  mus,  133 

Apidae,  176 

Apis  mellifica,  176 

Apple-tree  borer,  211 

Aradus  creuatus,  83 

Arctia,  156 

Argynnis  aphrodite,  161,  188 

Army-worm,  154 

(Sciara),  136 
northern,  196 
wheat-head,  197 

Arthromacra  aenea,  103 

Arthropteridae,  84 

Asilidse,  134 

Asilus  novae-scotiae,  134 

Asopia  farinalis,  152 

Assembling  of  moths,  148 

Asteia  tenuis,  126 

Atta,  171 

Attacus,  155 


356 


nwEx. 


Attelabus  rhois,  101, 180 

Balaninus  nasicus,  100 
Baridius  trinotatus,  205 
Bark-borer,  99 
Basket-worm,  156 
Bean  weevil,  206,  207 
Bee,  carpenter,  185 

leaf -cutter,  186 

honey,  162,  176 

embryo  of,  37 

louse,  124 

moth,  152 
Beetle,  91.;  carpet.  111 
blistering,  203 
flea,  204 
helmet,  204 
snapping,  109 
Beetles,  collecting,  271 

rearing,  276 
Belostoma  grisea,  83 
Bembex  fasciata,  174 
Bibio  albipennis,  135 
Bird-lice,  66 
Bittacus,  89 
Blaps,  103 
Blatta  orientalis,  62 
Blepharocera  fasciata,  135 
Blissus  leucopterus,  84,  195 
Blister-beetle,  102 
Bombus,  176 
Bombycidae,  155 
Bombylius,  133 
Bombyx  mori,  42,  43,  155 
Borers,  105 
Boreus,  89 

Bots,  remedies  against,  323 
Botys,  152 
Brachycera,  133 
Bracon,  169 
Braconidae,  169 
Brain,  13,  310 


Braula  cceca,  124 

Braulina,  124 

Breathe,  how  insects,  19,  20 

Brenthidae,  100 

Bvistle-tails,  56 

Broods,  several,  42  ^ 

Bruchidse,  103 

Bruchus  fabse,  207 

obsoletus,  104 
pisi,  104,  206 
Bug,  74 

chinch,  77 
garden,  204 
mealy,  79 
squash,  74-76 
Buprestidse,  109 
Butterflies,  158 

metamorphosis  of,  145, 

148 
scales  of,  142,  143 
Butterfly,  137 
Byrrhus  americanus,  110 
Byrsopidse,  101 

Cabbage  bug,  206 

Plusia,  205 
Cabbage,  insects  injurious  to,  205 
CaccEcia  rosaceana,  152 
Caddis-fly,  90,  108 
Caecilius,  67 
Calandra  granarius,  100 

oryzse,  100 
Calliphora  erythrocephala,  130 
Callosamia  promethea,  155 
Calobata  antennipennis,  129 
Caloptenus  femur-rubrum,  2,  63 

spretus,  2,  63 
Calopteryx  apicalis,  71 
Calosoma  calidum,  114 
Campodea  staphylinus,  58 
Camponotus,  171 
Canker-worm,  153 


INDEX. 


357 


Cantharis  vesicatoria,  102 
Capsidae,  84 
Carabidfe,  114 
Carabus  serratus,  1 14 
Caipocapsa  pomonella,  213 
Case-worm,  91,  183 
Castaia  licus,  157 
C'astniadae,  157 
Cataclysta,  152 
Caterpillar,  143 
Caterpillars,  blowing,  267 

preserving  small,  in 
alcohol,  266 

rearing,  247 
Catocala,  154 
Cecidomyia  destructor,  192 

grossulariaj,  137 
Cemonus  inornatus,  175 
Cephaloou  lepturides,  103 
Cephus,  166 
Cerambycid*,  105 
Ceratopogon,  135 
Cerceris  deserta,  174 
Cercopidae,  82  ^ 

Cercyonis  alope,  161 
Chserocampa,  158 
Chafer,  rose,  107 
Chalcididse,  169 
Chalcis,  169 

Chalcophora  virgiuiensis,  109 
Chalcosoma  atlas,  96 
Chauliodes  pectinicornis,  87 
Chiasoguathus  grantii,  97 
ChigcB,  116 
Chinch  bug,  195 
Chique,  116 
Chironomus,  42 

uivoriimdus,  135 
Chlamys  plicata,  183 
Chlorops,  126 
Chrysalis,  38,  145 
Chrysididae,  170 


Chrysis,  170 

Chrysobolhris  femorata,  109 
Chrysomelidae,  104 
Chrysopa,  87 

Chrysophanus  thoe,  160,  223 
Chrysops  niger,  134 
Cicada,  septendecim,  82 
Cicindela  hirticollis,  115 

vulgaris,  115 
Cicindelidse,  114 
Cimbex  americana,  166 
Cimex  lectularius,  84 
Cinura,  58 
Cis  fuscipes,  108 
Cistela  sericea,  103 
Citheronia  regalis,  155 
Clavicornia,  110 
Cleptes,  170 
Cleridse,  108 

Clisiocampa  americana,  155 
Clothes  moth,  151 
Clypeus,  6 

Coccinella  novem-notata,  112 
Coccus,  79 
Cochineal,  79 
Cockroach,  62,  311 

organs  of  smell  in,  2? 
Coddling  moth,  213 
Coelopa  frigida,  128 
Cccnomyia  pallida,  134 
Coleoptera.  91.  55 
Collecting,  271 
Coleothrips  trifasciata,  197 
Colias  philodice,  160 
CoUembola,  57 
Colorado  potato-beetle,  202 
Colydium  lineola.  111 
ConopidiB,  131 
Conops  tibialis,  132 
Conorhinus  sanguisugus,  83 
Conotrachelus  nenuphar.  100,  214 
Coptosoma  globus,  84 


358 


INDEX. 


Cordyluridse,  129 
Coreidaa,  84 
Corimelsena  atra,  84 
Corisa  interrupta,  83 
Corisidae,  83 
Corn  maggot,  199 
weevil,  200 
Corrodentia,  66 
Corj'dalis  cornutus,  87 
Corylophus  truucatus,  112 
Cossidoe,  157 
Costa,  19 

Cotalpa  lanigera,  107 
Cotton  army-worm,  200 
Coxa,  6 
Crabro  sex-maculatus,  175 

singularis,  175 
Crambus  vulgivagellus,  152,  153 
Cranberry  worm,  152 
Cricket,  musical  organ  of,  30 
Crop,  9 

Cryptophagidae,  111 
Cryptus,  168 
Ctenucha  virginica,  157 
Cucujidae,  111 
Culex  ciliatus,  135 
Cupes  capitata,  108 
Curculionidse,  100 
Currant-worm,  217 
Cut-worm,  198 
Cyclorhapha,  125 
Cynipidae,  166 

Cynips  quercus  aciculata,  166 
spongifica,  166 
Cyrtidae,  133 

Dactylopius  adonidum,  79 
Dacne  4-maculata,  112 
Dakruma  convolutella,  152 
Dascyllidaj,  110 
Death  tick,  67 

watch,  67 


Delphax  arvensis,  82 
Deltoids,  154 

Dendroctonus  terebrans,  99 
Dendroides  canadensis,  102 
Dermaptera,  58,  54 
Dermestes  lardarius.  111 
Dermestidae,  111 
Derodontus  maculatus,  110 
Dexia  analis,  131 
Diabrotica  vittata,  207 
Diapheromera  femoratum,  68 
Diastata  pulchra,  126 
Diedrocepbala  mollipes,  82 
Digestion,  11 
Digestive  canal,  11 
Dione  vanillae,  161 
Diopsidae,  128 
Diplax  berenice,  68 
Diplopteryga,  175 
Diplosis  tritici.  137,  195 
Diptera,  55,  117,  285 
Diseases  of  insects,  42 
Dixa  clavata,  134 
Dolichopus  cuprinus,  133 
Dor  bug,  107 
Dorylidae,  171 
Doryphora  10-lineata,  104 
Dragon-flies,  68,  282 
Drosophila  ampelophila,  126 
Dryocoetes  affaber,  99 
Dynastes  tityus,  106 
Dysdercus  suturellus,  84 
Dytiscidae,  113 
Dytiscus  fasciventris,  113 

Eacles  imperialis,  155 
Ear,  28 
Eciton,  171 
Egg,  32,  34,  35 

burster,  38 

guide,  4,  34 

sections  of,  319 


v^ 


INDEX. 


359 


Elampus,  170 

Elateridae,  109 

EUema  hanisii,  158 

Embia  savigni,  67 

Embryology,  35 

Emesa  longipes,  83 

Empis  armipes,  133 

Empusa  aulicae,  47 
muscae,  45 

Endomychidae,  113 

Endomychus  biguttatus,  112 

Eatimus  imperialis,  101 

Entomology,  economic,  189 

Entomophthora  radicans,  47 

Ephemera,  71 

Ephydra  californica,  127 
gracilis,  128 
halophila,  127 

Epicauta  cinerea,  102,  203 
pensylvauica,  203 
vittata.  103,  203 

Epicranium,  6 

Epilachna  borealis,  208 

Epimerum,  4 

Episternum,  4 

Erax  bastardii,  134 

Erebus  odora,  154 

Erotylidse,  112 

Erycina,  160 

Erythroneura  vitis,  82  '' 

Eudalimia  subsignaria,  154 

Eudamus  batliyllus,  160 

Eudryas  grata,  157 
unio,  157 

Eumenes  fraterna,  175,  185 

EumenidfE,  175 

Eupsalis  minuta,  100 

Eurytoma  bordei,  169 

Evania  laevigata,  168 

Evaniidae,  168 

Everyx  myron,  211,  212 

Eyes,  24,  311 


Femur,  6 

Fertilization   of  flowers  by   in- 
sects, 217 
Figitinae,  167 
Firefly,  110 
Flacherie,  43, 
Flea,  115 

beetle,  104 
snow,  57 
Fly,  dragon,  68 

bouse,  118,  314 

May,  71 

saw,  166 
Fcenus  jaculator,  168 
Footprints  of  insects,  17 
Forceps,  insect,  227 
Forficula,  58 
Formica,  171 
Formicidae,  170 
Foul  brood,  44 
Frog's  spittle,  82 
Fruit,  insects  beneficial  to,  217 
Fulgora  candelaria,  82 
Fungi,  insect,  42 

Galeruca  xanthomelaena,  104 
Galgulus  oculatus,  83 
Galleria  melonella,  152 
Gall-fly,  42,  166 
Ganglia,  13 
Gastropacha,  155 
Gastrophilus  equi,  131 
Geometridae,  153 
Geomyzidae,  126 
Generations  of  insects,  42 
Georyssidae,  110 
Georyssus  pusillus,  110 
Gerris  remigis,  83, 
Glands,  rectal,  11 

salivary,  9 

sebific,  33 
Goniocotes  burnettii,  66 


360 


INDEX. 


Gortyna  nitela,  200 
Gorytes  flavicornis,  174 
Grape,  insects  injurious  to,  209 

phylloxera,  209 
Grasshopper,  red-legged,  1 
Grease,  to  remove,  270 
Grub,  white,  198 
Gryllidge,  63 
Gryllotalpa  borealis,  63 
Gyriuus  borealis,  113 
Gyropus  ovalis,  66 
porcelli,  66 

Hairs,  31 

Haltica  cucumeris,  204 
Halictus  parallelus,  176 
Haliplus  fasciatus,  114 
Halobates  wuellerstorfli,  83 
Harpalus  caligiuosus,  93 
Hecatesia,  157 
Hedychrum,  170 
Heliconia,  161 
Helicopsyche,  183 
Heliothis  armigera,  154 
Helomyza  apicalis,  129 
Hemaris  thysbe,  158 
HemerobidiB,  87 
Hemileuca  mala,  155 
Hemiptera,  55,  74 

collecting,  280 
Hepialidae,  157 
Hepialus  mustelinus,  157 
Hesperia  tessellata,  160 
HesperidiB,  160 
Hessian  fly,  192 
Heteroceridifi,  110 
Heterocerus  pallidus,  110 
Heterogj^na,  170 
Heteromera,  101 
Heteroneura  albimana,  128 
lleteroptera,  82 
Hippobosca  equina,  125 


Hirmoneura  obscura,  133 
Hister  interruptus,  110 
Homalomyia  cunicularis,  130 

scalaris,  130 
Homoptera,  79 
Honey  bee,  176,  291 
Hop  aphis,  208 
worm,  209 
Horn-tails,  166 
Humble-bee,  176 
Hydrobatidae,  83 
Hydrocampa,  152 
Hydrometra  lineata,  83 
Hydrophilus,  embryo  of,  36 
Hydrophilus  triangularis,  U3 
Hydroscapha  natans,  112 
Hymenoptera,  55,  161,  288 
Hypena  humuli,  154,  209 
Hyperchiria  io,  155 
Hyphantria  cunea,  157 
Hypoderma  bovis,  131 
Hypodermis,  40 
Hyporhagus  opaculus,  103 

Ibalia,  167 
Ichneumon,  168,  218 
Ichneumonidae,  168 
Imago,  41 
Ingluvies,  9 
Inquilines,  167 

Insects,  anatomy  of,  external,  1,  8 
internal,  7 
as  architects,  178 
beneficial,  217 
cabinet  for,  238 
collecting,  224 
dissection  of,  289 
how  they  breathe,  19 
fly,  19,  21 
hear,  28 
see,  24 
smell,  26 


INDEX. 


361 


Insects,  how  they  taste,  27 
touch, 31 
walk,  17 

increase  in  numbers  of, 
48 

insectivorous,  230 

metamorphosis  of,  32 

mounting,  294 

naturalized,  189 

number  of  species  of,  52 

orders  of,  54 

parasitic,  218 

periodicity  in  appearance 
of,  52 

pinning,  230 

senses  of,  21 

sections  of,  296 
Insecticides,  222 
Intestine,  11 
Ips  fasciatus,  110 
Isomera,  103 
Isosoma  hordei,  19 

vitis,  211 

Japyx  subterraneus,  58 
Jassidse,  82 
Jigger,  116 
Joint-worm,  191 

Labia,  58 
Labidus,  171 
Labium,  7 
Labrum,  6 
Lachneides,  155 
Lachnosterna  fusca,  94 
Lac  insect,  79 
Lagriidge,  103 
Lamellicornia,  106 
Lampyris,  109 
Lampyridae,  109 
Laphria,  134 
Larch  saw-fly,  166 


Larrada  semirufa,  174 
Larva,  38 
Lasia  klettii,  133 
Lasiocampiuse,  155 
Laternaria  phosphorea,  82 
Leaf-cutter  bee,  186 
Leaf  miners,  151 
rollers,  179 
Lecanium  hesperidum,  79 
Legs,  17 
Lepidoptera,  55,  137 

mounting,  269 
rearing,  247 
wings   of,   bleach- 
ing, 268 
Lepisma  domestica,  58 
4-seriata,  58 
saccharina,  58 
Leptinillus  validus,  112 
Leptinotarsa  10-liueata,  202 
Leptinus  testaceus,  112 
Leptis  albicornis,  134 
Leucania  unipuncta,  154,  196 
Libellula  trimaculata,  71 
Libythaea,  160 
Limacodes,  156 
Limothrips  cerealiura,  73 
Lingua,  7 

Lithosia  bi color,  157 
Lobesia  botrana,  211 
Locust,  ears  of,  28 

red-legged,  1,  59,  63 
Rocky  Mountain,  61,  63 
Locustidae,  63 
Lonchaea  polita,  128 
Lonchoptera  riparia,  133 
Longicorn  beetles,  105 
Lophyrus,  166 
Louse,  78 

bark,  79 
bee,  124 
bird,  66 


U 


362 


INDEX. 


Louse,  book,  67 

plaut,  80 
Lucanidfe,  107 
Lucanus  dama,  107 
Lucilia  csesar,  130 

macellaria,  130 
Lycaenidae,  160 
Lycomorpha  pholus,  157 
Lygseidse,  84, 
Lygaeus  fasciatus,  84. 
Lygus  lineolaris,  304 
Lymexylon  sericeum,  108 

Machilis  variabilis,  58 
Macrobasis,  102 

cinerea,  203 
Macrodactylus  subspinosus,  107 
Macrolepidoptera,  150 
Malachius  seneus,  108 
Mallodon  melauopus,  106 
Mallophaga,  65,  66 
Mandible,  7 
Manna  insect,  79 
Mantis  Carolina,  62 
Mantispa  interrupta,  87 
MasaridfE,  175 
Maxilla,  7 
May  beetle,  94,  107 
May-fly,  71,  283 
Meal  worm,  103 
Mccoplera,  55,  88 
Megathymus  yuccae,  160 
Megistorhynchus      longirostris, 

133 
Melandrj^a  striata,  103 
Melanophila  drummondi,  109 
Melipona,  176,  188 
Melitoea  phaeton,  161 
Melittia  ceto,  158 

cucnrbitfe,  207 
Mellinus  bimaculatus,  175 
Meloe  angusticollis,  102 


Meloidae,  102 

Melophagus  ovinus,  125 

Membracis  foliata,  82 

Menopon  pallidum,  66 

Meromyza  americana,  126 

Merope  tuber,  89 

Metabola,  55 

Metamorphosis,  38 

Metoecus  paradoxus,  102 

Miastor,  42 

Micrococcus  bombycis,  43 

Microgaster,  169,  219,  220 

Microlepidoptera,  150 

packing,  262 
rearing,  254 

Micropezidae,  129 

Micropyle,  34 

Microsporidium  bombycis,  43 

Midas  clavatus,  134 

Midge,  135 

Milyas  cinctus,  83 

Mimesa  cressouii,  175 

Monohammus  confusor,  106 

Monommidoe,  103 

Mordella  8-p\mctata,  103 

Mosquito,  135 

Moth,  bee,  152 

Moths,  small,  packing,  262 

wings  of,  bleaching,  268 

Moulting,  39 

Moults,  number  of,  in  caterpil- 
lars, 39 

Murgautia  histrionica,  206 

Musca  domestica,  130 

Muscardiue,  44 

Muscidae,  130 

Mutilla  ferrugata,  172 

Mycetobia  sordida,  137 

Mycetophagus  punctatus.  111 

Mycetophilidte,  136 

Mymar,  169 

Myodites,  102 


INDEX. 


363 


Mj'imecocystus,  171 

Mj'rmica  molesta,  171 

Myrmosa  unicolor,  173 

Mytilaspis  citricola,  79 
gloverii,  79 
pomorum,  79 

Nabis  ferus,  83 

Nacerdes  melanura,  103 

Naucoridoe,  83 

Necrophorus  Americanus,  113 

Neides  spinosus,  84 

Nematocera,  134 

Nematus  erichsonii,  166 

ventricosus,  166,  317 
Nemestrinidae,  133 
Nepidae,  83 
Nepticula,  151 
Nervous  system,  13 
Net,  insect,  336 
Neuroptera,  55,  84 
Neuroterus  lenticularis,  167 
Nisoniades  brizo,  160 
Nit,  78 

Nitidula  bipustulata,  110 
Noctuidae,  154 
Notodontians,  155 
Notonecta  undulata,  83 
Notoxus  anchora,  103 
Nycteribia  westwoodi,  134 
Nymph,  73 
Nymphalidae,  160 
Nysson  lateralis,  174 

Odonata,  55,  68 
Odontomachidae,  171 
Odontomachus,  171 
Odors  of  insects,  149 
Odynerus  albopbaleratus,  175 
(Ecanthus  niveus,  63 
CEcopbylla  smaragdina,  183 
CEdemeridae,  103 


(Edipoda  Carolina,  63 
CEneis  semidea,  161 
(Esophagus,  7 
(Estrida",  131 
(Estropsidae,  90 
Olfactory  organs,  36 
Oncideres  cingulatus,  105 
Onthophagus  rangifer,  96 
Ophion,  168 

Opomyza  signicosta,  138 
Orgyia,  156 

Orphnephila  testacea,  135 
Orthoptera,  55,  59,  383 
Ortalidae,  139 
Orthorbapha,  133 
Oscinidae,  136 
Osmia  simillima,  186 
Othnius  umbrosus,  103 
Otiorhynchus  sulcatus,  101 
Ovaries,  38 
Oviduct,  33 
Ovipositor,  4,  34 

Pachycoris  torridus,  84 
Palingenia  bilineata,  73 
Paltostoma  torrentium,  13P 
Pangaeus  bilineatus,  84 
Panorpa,  89 
Panorpidae,  89 
Papilionidae,  160 
Papilio  ajax,  43 

turnus,  139,  140,  160 
Parandra  brunnea,  1 06 
Paraponyx,  153 
Paris  green,  838 
Parnassius,  160 
Parnidae,  110 
Parnopes,  170 
Parthenogenesis,  41 
Passalaecus  mandibularis,  175 
Passaluscornutus,  107 
Peach-tree  borer,  315 


364 


INDEX. 


Pear  slug-worm,  166 

Pebriue,  43 

Pediculina,  78 

Pediculus  capitis,  78 
pubis,  78 
vestimenti,  78 

Pelecinldse,  169 

Peleciuus  polycerator,  169 

Peliduota  punctata,  107 

Pelocoris  f  emorata,  83 

Pelopseus  tJavipes,  173,  185 

Pempliredonidiae,  175 

Pentatomidae,  84 

Periodicity  in  insect-life,  53 

Perla  abnormis,  67 

Pests,  insect,  destruction  of  by 
fungi,  45 
of  museums,  237 

Petroleum  emulsions,  222 

Phacellura  nitidalis,  308 

Pliseueus  earn  if  ex,  107 

Phalacrus  ovalis,  112 

Phatenidae,  153 

Phaneroptera  curvicauda,  63 

Phasmidse,  63 

Pheidole,  171 

Phengodes,  109 

Philanthus  vertilabris,  174 

Pbora  incrassata,  13r 

Phorbia  ceparum,  l'o\j 

Phoridse,  136 

Plioturis  pyralis,  109 

Phoxopteris  fragariae,  152 

Phryganea,  183 

Phryganidse,  91 

Pbycinse,  152 

Phycis  rubrifascielk,  182 

Pbycodromidse,  128 

Phyllium  siccifolium,  63 

Phylloxera  quercus,  80 
vastatrix,  209 

Phymata  erosa,  83 


Phytomyza  clematidis,  126 
Phytophaga,  103 
Pickle-worm,  308 
Pieris  oleracea,  160 

rapse,  160,  205 
Pimpla,  168 
Piophila  casei,  138 
Pipunculus  cingulatus,  131 
Pique,  116 
Pissodes  strobi,  100 
Plagionotus  speciosus,  106 
Platygaster,  169 

berrickii,  193 
Platymodes  pensylvanica,  63 
Platynus  cupripenne,  114,  115 
Platypeza  anthrax,  131 
Platypsylla  castoris,  113 
Platyptera,  63,  55 
Platypteryx  arcuata,  155 
Platysamia  cecropia,  155 
Plectoptera,  71,  55 
Plectrotarsus,  90 
Pleurite,  2 
Plum  weevil,  314 
Plusia  brassicse,  205 
Pcecilacapsus  lineatus,  84 
Poduridse,  57 
Pogonomyrmex,  171 
Polistes,  185 
Polyergus,  171 
Polygonia  progne,  161 
Pompilus  formosus,  173 
Ponera,  171 

Potamanthus  marginatus,  72 
Potato  beetle,  104 

insects  injurious  to,  202 
Prionocyphou  discoideus,  110 
Prionoxystus  robinise,  158 
Proctotrupidse,  169 
Promachus  titchii,  134 
Proventriculus,  9 
Pselaphidae,  113 


INDEX. 


365 


Pselaphus  erichsonii,  112 
Psenides,  167 
Psen  leucopus,  175 
Psephenus  lecoutei,  110 
Psila  bicoior,  129 
Psociis  novis-scotiae,  67 
Psyche  helix,  183 
Psychodes  alternata,  134 
Psylla  pyri,  82 

tripunctata,  81. 
Psyllobora  20-maculata,  112 
Pteratomus  putnami,  169 
Pteromalus  puparum,  169,  205, 

219 
Pteronarcys  regalis,  67 
Pterophoridse,  150 
Pterophorus  periscelidactylus,  1 50 
Ptinus  fur,  108 
Ptyelus  lineatus,  82  ^ 

Pulex  canis,  116 

irritaus,  116 
Pulvinaria  iunumerabilis,  79 
Pupa,  40 

Pupaj,  management  of,  252 
Puparium,  123 
Pupipara,  124 
Pyralid?e,  152 
Pyralinoe,  152 
Pyrgota  uudata,  129 
Pyrochroa  tlabellata,  102 
Pyiochroidae,  102 
Pyrophorus  noctilucus,  110 
P^rrhocoridae,  84 
Pytho  uiger,  108 

Radish  fly,  206 
Rearing  beetles,  276 
insects,  243 
Reduviidis,  83 

Remedies  against  insects,  221 
Rhagovelia  obesa,  83 
Rhinopsis  canaliculata,  173 


Rhipiceridae,  110 
Rhipldius  pectinicornis,  102 
Rlilpiphoridte,  102 
Rhinomacer  elongatus,  101 
Rhopalocera,  158 
Rhopalum  pedicellatum,  175 
Rhopobota  vacciniana,  152 
Rhynchites  bicoior,  101 
Rhyncophora,  99 
Khyncophorus  palmarum,  100 
Rhyphus  alternatus,  134 
Rhyssa,  168 

Rhyssodes  exaratus.  111 
Rurales,  160 

Sack-bearer,  183 
Salda  signoretii,  83 
Sandalus  petrophya,  110 
Sannina  exitiosa,  215 
Saperda  Candida,  105,  211 
Sapromyza  vulgaris,  128 
Sapyga  martinii,  173 
Sarcophaga  carnaria,  131 

sarraceniae,  131 
Sarcopsylla  penetrans,  116 
Sargus  decorus,  134 
Saw-fly,  166,  324 
Scales,  31 

Scaphidium  quadriguttatum,  li2 
Scaraboeidre,  106 
Scatophaga  stercoraria,  130 
Scenopinidse,  133 
Scent-scales,  149 
Schizura  unicornis,  155 
Sciara  mali,  136 
Sciomyza  albocostata,  129 
Scolia,  172 

Scolopendrella  immaculata,  5'» 
Scolytidse,  99 
Scutelleridse,  84 
Scutellum,  4 
Scutum,  4 


366 


INDEX. 


Scydmaenus  marise,  Ti^ii 

Semiotella  destructor,  169,  193 

Sepsis  similis,  128 

Serricornia,  108 

Sesia  pyri,  158 

Sesildae,  158 

Sexual  differences  in  insects,  33 

Sialidse,  87 

Silk,  144 

Silk-worm,  42 

American,  155 
Chinese,  155 

Silpha  lapponica,  112 

Silpbidae,  112 

Simulidae,  135 

Simulium  meridionale,  135 
molestum,  135 
pecuarum,  136 

Siphonaptera,  55,  115 

Sitodrepa  panicea,  108 

Slug-worm,  166 

Smell,  organs  and  sense  of,  26 

Smerinthus  excaecatus,  158 

Smynthurus  elegans,  57 

Snapping  beetles,  109 

Sounds  made  by  insects,  30 

Spanish  fly,  "'02 

Spathegaster  baccarum,  167 

Sphserius  politus,  112 

Sphenophorus  zese,  200 

Sphex  ichneumouea,  173,  184 

Sphindus  americanus,  108 

Sphinx  Carolina,  158 
celeus,  158 
embryology  of,  36 

Sphyracephala  brevicornis,  128 

Spilosoma  virginica,  156 

Spindle-worm,  200 

Spiracle,  19,  316 

Spraying  machines,  223 

Spring-tails,  56 

Squash  beetle,  207 


Squash  borer,  207 
bug,  208 
lady-bird,  208 
pickle-worm,  208 

Stalachtis,  160 

Stalk-borer,  200,  205 

Staphylinidse,  113 

Staphylinus  vulpinus,  112 

Stephanidae,  168 

Stephanas  cinctipes,  168 

Sternite,  2 

Stigmata,  19 

Stigmus  fraternus,  175 

Sting,  bee's,  164,  315 

Stizus  speciosus,  174 

Stomach,  9 

Stomoxys  calcitrans,  130 

Stratomyia  picipes,  134 

Strepsiptera,  101 

Stylops  childreni,  101 

Subimago,  72 

Sugaring,  246 

Sylvanus  surinamensis,  111 

Symphyla,  57 

Synemon  sophia,  157 

Syrphida?,  132 

Syrphus  politus,  132 

Systoechus  oreas,  133 

Tabanus  lineola,  184 

Tachina,  181,  218,  220 

Tachiuidae,  131 

Tactile  sense,  31 

Tanypus  annulatus,  135 

Tapinoma,  171 

Taste,  organs  and  sense  of,  2'i 

Telea  polyphemus,  155 

Teleas,  169 

Temperature,  influence  of  chan 

ges  of,  on  insects,  49 
Tenebrio  molitor,  103 
Tenebrionidae,  103 


INDEX. 


367 


Tenthredinidae,  165 
Terebrantia,  165 
Tergite,  2 

Termes  flavipes,  65,  68 
Testes,  34 

Thecestermis  huiueralis,  101 
There va  albiceps,  133 
Thrips  striatus,  73,  197 
Throscus  constrictor,  109 
Thymele  proteus,  160 
Thysania  agrippina,  154 
Thyreopus,  175 
Thyreus  abbotii,  158 
Thyrididae,  158 
Thyris  lugubris,  158 
maculata,  158 
Thysanoptera,  55,  73 
Thysanura,  54,  56 
Tibia,  6 

Timber-beetle,  99 
Tinea  biselliella,  151 

granella,  151 

pelliolella,  151 

tapetzella,  151 
Tineidjse,  150 
Tingis  clavata,  84 
Tiphia  inornata,  172 
Tipula  trivittata,  134 
Tipulidse,  134 
Tomicus  pini,  99 
Tomicus  typographus,  48 
Tomocerus  plumbeus,  57 
Tortricidae,  151 

collecting,  262 
rearing,  262 
Tortrix  fumiferana,  152 
Touch,  sense  of,  31 
Trachea,  19,  20,  317 
Traps  for  beetles,  272 
moths,  246 
Tremex  columba,  166 
Trichocera  regelationis,  134 


Trichodectes  canis,  66 
Trichodes  nuttallii,  108 
Trichoptera,  55,  90 
Trichopterj'x  aspera,  112 
Trigona,  188 
Trigonalidte,  168 
Ti-igonalys,  168 
Tritoxa  flexa,  129 
Trochautine,  6 
Trogosita  virescens,  110 
Trypeta  tiorescentise,  129 

Urinary  tubes,  11,  13 
Uroceridae,  166 
Utetheisa  bella,  157 
Vanessa  antiopa,  161 
Veins  of  the  wings,  19 
Veliidae,  83 
Ventriculus,  9 
Venule,  19 
Vespa  arenaria,  175 

maculata,  175 
Vespidse,  175 
Vine-dresser,  211,  212 

Wasps,  paper,  175,  177,  184 

wood,  174 
Weather,   influence  of  changes 

of,  on  insects,  49 
Weevil,  99 
Wheat,  insects  injurious  to,  191 

midge,  195 

thrips,  197 
Wire-worm,  199 
Workers,  32 

Xenos  peckii,  102 
Xyleborus,  99 
Xylophagus  rufipes,  134 
Xyloterus,  99 

Zarhipis,  109 

Zygsena,  157 
Zygaenida',  157 


^.^Me^cV 


